Key Features and Issues - aceh.b-cdn.net



Key Features and IssuesAutocracyModernisation (including industrialisation)RevolutionsWarThe downfall of the Romanov Dynasty and the rise of dictatorsCommunismRussia at the Turn of the Century (1900)Political, Economic, and Social status of RussiaGovernment: Ruled by absolute monarch (Tsar) who had a large bureaucracy and relied on the support of a large economy. They also heavily taxed the peasantsUnlimited power w/out consultation, divine right to rule, corrupt and inefficient, conscription for army ranks, must stay in the army for 25 years, majority of taxes spent on navy/army, Imperial Court, bureaucracy/administration, Church donations. Less was spent on building infrastructure, and virtually none on social welfareEconomy (1900)% of Russia’s economy came from primary production (agriculture)Only 15% came from industrial manufacturing, mining and infrastructureIndustrialisation was considerably behind the other Great PowersGermany in 1910: 40% industrial, 35% agricultural, 25% servicesHowever, since 1880s, Russia was industrialising slowly: Transports, railroads, factories, mass production, communications, heavy industry, militarySocietyRomanov Court (Imperial court was extravagant): SP Winter/M Summer PalacesNobility: Mostly related to Tsar (extremely rich, land ownership, 2 main cities)Peasants: V. poor, no owning land, illiterate, paid rent nobles, taxes stateFacts and FiguresFastest growing pop: 69-133 million (1850-1900), 158-195 million (1910-1917)Cities were relatively small (SP = 2 mill, Moscow = 1.5 mill, London = 5-6 mill)Rise of the Proletariat (urban labour force): V. poor working/living conditionsRise of the Bourgeoisie (educated middle class): Relatively better offPolitical power (bureaucracy/administration, Civil service, military HQ) Cities Conservative institutionsOkhrana: Secret police who operated in very province, seeking anyone who opposed the TsarWide ranging powers: Arrest anyone suspicious, punish w/out trial (exile to Siberia)Censorship: All publications e.g. books, newspapers etc. do not oppose the Tsar’s ruleCossacks: Tsar’s special bodyguard regiment in charge of crushing riots, demonstrations, protests by groups gathering to oppose the Tsar’s ruleChurch: Taught peasants that the Tsar had the ‘divine right to rule’Religion was a core value in their lives, charity = highly regardedRan all schools: Taught not to question, miserable life on earth = better after-lifeNobility: Controlling administration and owning the vast majority of land, property, and capitalThe impact of industrialisationUrbanisation: Mass movement from countryside to the citiesFactory system: Workers massed together, living and workingCommunication and literacyRise of new proletarian classPeasants moved to new urban areas in search for workAppalling living conditions and working (long hours, low pay) conditionsCreated a mass of disgruntled workersOutcome and effects of the Russo-Japanese War (Jan 1904-August 1905)Japan attacked Korea (Russian control), war broke outMilitary output could not compete (not industrialised)Lack of infrastructure (only Trans-Siberian Railway)Ran out of weapons, ammunition, other war materialStockpiles of supplies sat at the railway sidingsShortages at the home-front: Food and fuel DissatisfiedEach Japanese victory = new waves of dissatisfaction (smaller, less powerful)Strikes were illegal, unhappy workers gathered to demonstrate (can easily organise them)Loss of Port Arthur (Dec 1904) triggered a new wave of anti-government demonstrationsRebellion and ReformBloody Sunday, 1905 RevolutionDispute at Putilov Metal Works Other industries General strike of all factory workersBy January 8th, 110000 workers were on strike in St Petersburg (Assembly of Factory Workers)Priest Father Gapon organised petition to ask for changes: how taxes were spent (huge sums), constitutional assembly, negotiating with workersHundreds killed, nearly a thousand including children were injured: Horrified the Russian public, turned the lower classes against the TsarJanuary to October 1905: Violent outbreaks increasedWorkers: Mounting anger about war progress, shortages, poor living conditionsPeasants also started revolting against their landlordsCrew of the battleship Potemkin mutinied – considered pride of the Russian NavyOctober ManifestoFundamental civil freedoms granted to the population: Freedom of conscience, speech, assembly, and associationParticipation in Duma for the classes that do not have voting powersMost middle class protestors quite protesting, exc. radical left wing working groupsStolypin’s ReformsPolicies took back most of reforms + discouraged anyone from complaining about reversalsPunishing leaders: hanging 2000 people 91905-1909), 210000 sent to SiberiaState Council: Tsar-appointed deputies, can stop any law proposed by the DumaNew electoral law favouring the rich: Unfairly weighted votesLimited rights the poor, Duma represented interest of the richLegal reforms (peasants’/factory workers): living/working conditions slightly betterFrom Stolypin to WW1 Changes in Russia (1911-12)Bourgeoisie had significant influence over the governmentStrong representation in the Duma, Strong number in the electorate1911: Bourgeoisie-dominated Duma wanted to remove Stolypin’s restrictionsWished to industrialised faster (Russia as a whole)Reduced working conditions and wages of proletariat1912-14: Industrial and Agricultural input increasedWidespread dissatisfaction/discontent increasedIncreasing number of workers’ strikesLena Goldfield strikes and massacre (Siberia) by Cossacks (1912)Demanded higher wages, Cossacks suppressed the strikesProvoked outrage across Russia: renewed industrial unrest, sympathy strikes Left-wing (Marxist) partiesFinal split of Russian Social Democratic Labour Party): Mensheviks and BolsheviksUrban working class has grown considerably (1905-14): Increased membershipMuch more militant (more active in fighting for rights: violent means)General strike across Russia (July, ordered by St Petersburg Soviet)Violent clashes between workers and police/army/CossacksThe Downfall of the Romanov Dynasty and the Execution of the FamilyImpact of WWIOutbreak of war (August 1914)Announcement (against Germany/AH) ended strikes and demonstrationsWave of Russian nationalism/patriotism and support for the TsarSt Petersburg Petrograd (less German, more Russian)Saved Tsar’s regime (common enemy, diversion of attention from failures)Course of war (1914-17)1915: Initial successes against the Germans, then suffered massive defeatsGermany: Technologically superior, well trained, well equippedRussia: Poorly trained, peasant soldiers, led by incompetent officers, inefficiently equipped, had shortages of suppliesLarge number of casualtiesNicholas took over as commander-in-chief of military: took charge on Eastern FrontPersonally blamed for Russia’s defeats and sufferingHome FrontWinter of Discontent (severe shortages, widespread suffering)Lack of industrialisation: Incompetency strikes and demonstrationsTsarina Alexander, RasputinAlexandra: More blindly committed to autocracy than NicholasRasputin hugely influenced Alexandra (scandals regarding affair discredited monarchy)Government was unstable and inefficient: Dissolved Dumas, capable incapable, ignored growing discontent among Russians and warnings against dissent (Wife vs Rodzianko)Rasputin was assassinated by a group of Aristocrats in an attempt to restore credibilityMarch RevolutionLoss of faith in the Tsarist government since the outbreak of warMounting number of casualtiesSuccessive battle losses Loss of large amount of territoryNicholas II took on responsibility of losses as commander-in-chiefSevere shortages (Food, consumer goods)Instability in Russian government (numerous ministerial sackings by Tsarina)Suspicion surrounding loyalty and ability of the Tsarina to ruleRevolution22nd: Putilov Metal Works (wages and conditions) = thousands of angry workers23rd: Intl Women’s Day = Thousands of women/workers (working/living conditions)25th: Half a million workers on strike in Petrograd -> Cossacks refused to shoot27th: Petrograd garrison mutinied/joined workers, better conditions/payLaw and order ceased to exist: Soldiers + Cossacks mutinied + joined workersDuma urged Tsar to return from war front, dissolve (disbelief)March: P.S. taken over the role of the government, meeting at Tauride Palace (Duma)Order No. 1: Ordered army to recognise Petrograd Soviet as new govt.Elected committees would run military units, reps to PS for interestsOfficers’ orders to be obeyed: Approval of soldiers’ committees and P.S.Tsar tried to return to Petrograd by train (stopped by railroad workers)Stuck at warfront, unsure of army’s loyaltyMarch 2nd: Abdicated (advice from most trusted ministers)Abdicated in favour of his son Alexei (haemophilia)Offered throne to his brother, Grand Duke Michael AleksandrovichDeclined throne Progressive BlocDual Authority (Provisional Government and Petrograd Soviet)Provisional Government: Deputies from old Duma (Democracy) = Progressive BlocFormed Provisional Government, hoping to organise proper elections in near futureLegitimacy of receiving authority to rule Russia from the Tsar’s abdicationLoyalty of army officers, bureaucracy (government workers), and the policeHad “Authority without power”Petrograd Soviet: Leaders of strike committees, Marxist, and socialist political partiesCoordinated strike action, provided basic services for the strikersSimilar to Soviets from 1905, but more formally organised, with elected leadersSecured support of almost the whole of the working classRailway, postal/telegraph/major infrastructure service, regular soldiersHad “Power without Authority”Policies of Provisional GovernmentContinuation of the war: Shortages, casualties, battle losses continuedImprove working conditions: Further shortages on war and home front (fewer hours)Improve soldiers’ conditions: Illegal to shoot deserters, military discipline underminedDelay of general election: PG members elected w/ unfair electoral laws, democracy? Bolshevik Revolution (October/November 1917)Rise of Lenin and the Bolshevik PartyLenin in exile during WWI (Europe), wanted to get back after fall of Tsarist govt.Travelled through war zone, where Germans were fighting the RussiansStrongly disagreed w/ Soviets decision to support PG’s claim to ruleComposes “April Thesis” on the train back to Russia“All Power to the Soviets” and “Peace!Bread!Land!”November 1917: Bolshevik secures majority of Petrograd and Moscow SovietBolshevik coup d’étatBolsheviks directed Soviet Army militia to key locationsRailway stations, bridges, telephone exchange, the power stationOnly met opposition of the Winter PalaceRed Guard seized control of the Winter Palace and arrested Provisional GovernmentLenin declares Petrograd Soviet to be Russia’s governmentSoviets formed a new executive committee: Dominated by the BolsheviksRussian Civil WarWhites: Groups that opposed communism united in an attempt to overthrow the Bolsheviks, wished to re-establish the Tsar or the Provisional GovernmentNobility and landowners, Middle-class citizens, Foreign powers, Cossacks, Non-Bolshevik socialists, Army generals, LiberalsReds: New Soviet government, dominated by Lenin and Bolsheviks, wished to preserve the new Soviet regime and spread their influence and take control over RussiaIndustrial workers in the cities, Soviet Government (Bolshevik-led), Peasant workersTrotsky and the Red ArmyLeon Trotsky was appointed Political Commissar of the Army and NavyTrotsky was given the task of creating the Red Army, defending communism and saving the revolutionEnd of Russian Civil WarExtreme levels of discontent (low wages/conditions, long hrs, forced food requisition)March 1921: Kronstadt naval base mutinyConsidered to be one of the most loyal to Communist Party (pro-Bolshevik)Demanded freedom of speech, no deportation to Siberian gulags, and the liberation of SovietsSuppressed by the Red ArmyAssassination of the RomanovsAfter March Revolution, Romanovs were placed under house arrestRomanovs applied for asylum in European countries: All declinedMoved to Tolbolsk (Siberia), then to Ekaterinburg (Ural Mountains)White forces threatened Ekaterinburg (hope of restoring Tsar)July 17th 1918: Nicholas II and family were killed in the basement (firing squad)The Bolshevik Consolidation of PowerWar CommunismEnd of democratisation of institutions, Strict authoritarian style managementPolitical commissar overseeing the management of key industriesRe-introduction of conscription, officer corp, traditional army discipline (incl. death penalty)Secret Police (Cheka) established to ensure compliance and destroy counter-revolutionariesForceful requisition of food from farmers (Soldiers and city workers)Censorship re-introduced (prohibit criticisms)Party hierarchy: Lenin as dictatorAll other political parties are bannedNew Economic Policy (NEP)Aimed to increase food production and consumer goods’ producedPrioritised need for increase of food/consumer goods production (avoid revolution)Allowed peasants to sell most of their produce on free market for profitAllowed businesses (SMEs, key = govt. run) to sell for profit as wellSteady increase in productivity, no desire for revolutionIncreased food production (1921 = 43%, 1922 = 63%, 1926 = 96% of pre WWI levels)Split Party: Betrayal of Communist ideology vs supporting NEP to disband revolutionSoviet State under StalinCollectivisation, De-KulakisationMust rapidly increase output of Soviet grain (fund purchase of foreign-made machinery)Stalin decided to nationalise/socialise the whole agricultural industry (Kolkhoz and Sovkhoz)Small number of farms a few large government owned farmsDe-Kulakisation lead to great suffering for the KulaksKulaks: New wealthy middle-class peasants (Deported to gulags/cities: infrastructure)Many peasants were against collectivisation (Sub-kulaks)1932-3 Artificial famine: Destroying crops, slaughtering livestock, deportation of kulaks and sub-kulaks, forced requisition of grain, un-knowledgeable Party Officials in charge of farmingIndustrialisation and the Five-Year PlansThreat from the West: History of invasions and military failures, threat from advanced capitalists, necessary to protect the revolution. Goal: To achieve parity with the West or overtake them in 10 years (Collectivisation: purchase/import of industrial machinery)Gosplan and the 5 year plans: State Planning Authority (1928), important industries, what and how much will be produced, production and growth controlled by the stateFirst 5-year Plan (1928-32): Heavy industries (Iron/steel, oil, coal, roads etc.). Statistics: Pig iron (3.3 6.2 , 11), Coal (37.4 65.1 (77.0)Second 5-year Plan (1933-37): Heavy industries (efficiency, rise of living standards). Statistics: Pig iron (6.2 17.1, 18.2), Coal (65.2 126.4)Third 5-year plan: Interrupted by WWII, focused on production of consumer goodsFactories had to be refitted to focus production on military armaments and weapon technologyUrbanisationMillions of people were drawn to the cities (escape collectivisation/de-Kulakisation)Incentives offered by government in return for hard work, efficiency, and productivity80% of rural population moved to citiesMassive expansion of the proletariat and urban-industrial citiesWhole new cities and industrial areas emerged e.g. MagnitogorskHuman costExtremely high (loss of ‘human element’)Production gains were considered to be more important than human dignityForce, terror, and coercion were used to achieve targetsLegislation passed to control workers’ livesAbsenteeism became illegalLiving/working conditions were appallingPrice increases, overcrowding, lack of skilled labour, briberyMillions died (executed/sent to gulags)ImpactIndustrialised by WWII (2nd compared to US in economic growth/industrial output)End of WWII: Global super-powerStalin achieved security for the revolution, for socialism, and for RussiaPurges and the Great TerrorPurge of the old Bolshevik leadership (1934), starting with Sergei KirovAccused a number of potential rivals of being enemies of the stateShow Trials: Public confessions of the accused, usually forced by threats of tortureTop leaders of party, leaders of the army, leaders of the secret policeOriginal purges Great Terror (Large number of ordinary citizens denounced each other)Fear of being denounced themselvesResults: All potential rivals to Stalin were eliminated, 85% of the army leadership was purged, about 1 million dead (including citizens)Purges ended by the new head of NKVDSignificant factor in WWII: Lack of capable officersThe Great Patriotic WarThreat from the WestNazism in Germany (open about their antagonism against communism/plans to conquer)1930s: Soviet Union searched for ways to increase security (alliance w/ France, no Comintern)Germany: outrageous demands (take over parts of EU), Britain: appeasement policy Stalin: Secure enough time to militarise USSR before a future German invasionNazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact and the Invasion of Poland10-year agreement signed in 1939 between Germany and RussiaDivision of Poland between them, neither country would declare on the otherUSSR extended its influence into the Baltic SeaAllowed Hitler to avoid a 2 front war, attacking France in 1940Lasted for 2 years: Invasion in June 1941Nazi invasion (Operation Barbarossa)Soviet Intelligence Agencies warned Stalin of imminent Nazi attackSoviet army struggled to hold them back July 3rd = mobilisation to support war effortState Committee of Defence: Evacuation of all industry to the east of the Ural MountainsNov 1941: 1523 whole factories dismantled + relocated, 10 mill workers relocatedInitial decline in production, then rebounded back and continued to increaseAlliance with the West, the Lend Lease Program, Scorched Earth PolicyGermany already at war with Britain, then Russia, the USAThree countries united in 1942 to defeat Nazi GermanyLend Lease: USA equipment USSR to help sustain its production levels during warScorched Earth: Destruction of all resources not in Ural Mountains (Germans cannot use)Victory1943-5: No further advances into Soviet territorySoviet Army continued to drive the Germans steadily backLate 1944: Soviet army advanced beyond their 1939 bordersJan-May 1945: Final Soviet assault, captured BerlinGermany surrender unconditionally on May 9th 1945 to the Allies ................
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