Basics for the New Opossum Rehabilitator
Basic Opossum Care
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©2018 Opossum Society of the United States
Table of Contents
Congratulations!…………………………………………………………………………………….... 2
O.S.U.S. Membership Application………………………………………………………………… ..3
What is wildlife rehabilitation?…………………………………………………………………….... .4
Is wildlife rehabilitation for you?……………………………………………………….…………......5
Advice to the new volunteer…………………………………………………………………………. 6
Responding to a call for help…………………………………………………………………….….. 7
Your first opossums!…………………………………………………………………………………..9
Basic supplies………………………………….………………………………………………....….10
Terms and equivalents…………………………….……………………………………………..… 11
How to read a syringe………………………………………………………………………………. 12
Rehydrating………………………………………………………………………………………..… 13
Stimulation to expel waste……………………………………………………………………….… 13
Feeding………………………………………………………………………………………….…....14
Weaning and Post-Weaning………………..…………………………………………………..…. 16
Housing……………………………………………………………………………………………….17
‘Pinkies’, eyes closed, eyes open, weaned, pre-release ……………………………………17-21
Litter training…………..………………………………………………………………………...….. 22
Disinfecting cages, bedding and feeding utensils……………………………………………….. 23
Preparing opossums for release……………………………………………………………..….….24
Common orphan care problems and solutions………………………………………….…...…....26
Medical problems and emergency treatments…………………………………………………27-41
Deworming Chart……………………………………………………………………………..………36
Dehydration…………………………………………………………………………………………...39
Fluid Therapy Chart………………………………………………………………………………….40
Medicating the opossum…………………………………………………………………………….43
Critter Care Waterbator instructions……………………………………….………………..….....46
Contacts and supplies…………………………………………………………………………....…49
References and recommended reading (also see Product Resource attachment)………..….50
Attachments included with booklet…………………………………………………………………51
Congratulations!
You have made your first step in joining a growing network of professionals and volunteers devoting their time to helping opossums. This guide will introduce you to basic opossum orphan care. It is meant to supplement, not replace, the experience obtained working under the guidance of an experienced wildlife rehabilitator or attending wildlife rehabilitation courses provided by O.S.U.S. or other accredited wildlife rehabilitation organizations. There are many systems and formulas used by other organizations to successfully raise opossums until released.
Hopefully this manual can both fill in the details for successful rearing of opossums and/or serve as a comprehensive guide to those who don’t have an organization to train and mentor them.
Topics including caring for injured opossums, medicating, bandaging, fluid therapy, performing a physical examination, tube feeding, etc. are best performed by rehabilitators with some experience.
O.S.U.S.
The Opossum Society of the United States would like to especially thank Leslie Hall, DVM for compiling this manual and many of the individual handouts and instructions on Making Your Own Waterbator.
We also thank Leslie Bale for assisting in editing and adding her own tips, tricks and supplemental information of the handling and caring for opossums.
Thank you to Kim Osborn, DVM for compiling a comprehensive medication and alternative products list.
We thank long-time rehabilitators Louise Tinz and Tammy Williams, RN for reviewing and offering their input.
A special thank you to Paula Taylor, RN for the original idea, organization and implementation of our 1995 Orphan Care manual. This new manual is meant to be updated easily online.
O.S.U.S. MEMBERSHIP APPLICATION [pic]
_____ Please find enclosed my tax-deductible donation.
_____ I want to become a member of O.S.U.S. ($30 / year)
Name ____________________________________________________
Address __________________________________________________
City ______________________________ State ______ Zip ________
Phone ______________________ Email ________________________
____I am currently involved in opossum rehabilitation.
____ I am currently licensed as a wildlife rehabilitator.
Explain Briefly:
Please make check or money order payable to:
Opossum Society of the United States
P.O. Box 16724
Irvine, CA 92623
Or you can go to our website and enroll as a member through PayPal
What is wildlife rehabilitation?
Wildlife rehabilitation involves rescuing injured and orphaned wild animals, arranging for veterinary care if needed, providing follow-up care and raising orphans for release. The ultimate goal of wildlife rehabilitation is to RELEASE healthy wild animals back to the environment. The animals must be able to function as wild animals. They must be able to find their own food, avoid predators including people and pets, the possibility of finding mates to reproduce. In order to reach this goal, the rehabilitator must be familiar with the species he or she is rehabilitating. This includes knowledge about the natural habitat, diet, etc.
Wildlife rehabilitation also involves education. Not only must you educate yourself first about the opossum but also you must be able to handle questions from the public and offer advice. Make every effort to educate the members of your community to dispel common myths and misunderstandings about opossums. Contact local schools, youth groups, senior groups, homeowner’s associations, etc. and ask if they would like an “Opossum Presentation.” Ask local newspapers, radio stations and television if they would be willing to do something positive for the opossum. If you feel you do not know enough to give a presentation then contact O.S.U.S. A slide presentation in CD format with an easy-to-follow script can be purchased and will aid both the beginner and experienced opossum educator.
You will often be asked for assistance in dealing with an opossum “problem”. It is important to educate the public about co-existing with opossums in their neighborhoods. The best approach is to educate the public about the benefits opossums provide before advising about opossum deterrents. Wildlife rehabilitators are not trappers and relocators. We are here to help injured and orphaned animals and educate the public. If trapping is required then refer to a reliable, licensed humane company. Confirm beforehand that company will release the opossums and they will not be killed!
Wildlife rehabilitation does not involve the taming and keeping of healthy, releasable wildlife. All healthy, releasable animals must be released into an appropriate place in the environment; preferably right back where it came from or as close as possible. In the event an animal is not releasable then a suitable placement should be sought if the animal is appropriate for an education animal. Please seek our advice in determining if an animal is non-releasable and check with your state wildlife regulatory agency for the correct permits and licensing required for a educational display opossum.
Our website has a link to the comprehensive list the Humane Society of the United States (HSUS) created for wildlife rehabilitators by state. Look on our website under How to Locate a Wildlife Rehabilitator Near You and click on the HSUS link.
Is wildlife rehabilitation for you?
● Do you love opossums?
● Do you want to help opossums?
● Can you do whatever is in their best interest, and not your own?
● Do you have the time? Baby season can last several months. Animals may require feeding every few hours. Cages have to be cleaned, diets prepared, animals picked up or you may have to wait while animals are brought to you, etc.
● Do you have the means to purchase food, supplies and veterinary care?
● Can you deal with losing an animal or accept euthanasia, if best for the animal?
● Can you commit to educating yourself about the proper care of the opossum?
● This work requires dedication and responsibility. You often must feed baby animals even before you feed yourself. You may have to give up some vacation and fun time for the animals. Can you do this?
● Do you have family support? Will they understand you may not have as much time to spend with them during baby season?
● Can you resist the temptation to “tame” the animals?
● Can you minimize handling? Do not pet, etc. We do not want to tame these animals. Taming often results in the death of the animal once released!
● Can you keep your pets (and other people not involved in the opossum’s care) away from the opossums? We do not want opossums to become too used to pets and people. Again, this could be deadly for the opossum!
● Are you willing to clean cages daily, prepare and provide a proper diet?
● Can you release the opossums into the environment when ready? Yes, it is hard but it is what’s BEST for the animal in your care!
● Do you have a quiet room for opossum housing?
Is wildlife rehabilitation not for you?
● Do you love animals but just want to pet, feed and baby them?
● Will you try to keep one (illegally) as a pet? Remember, the baby
opossum may be cute now, but what will happen to it once it
becomes an adult and the finder no longer wants it, or worse yet, it
accidentally bites?
● Are you squeamish about treating a sick or injured animal? This is ok as long as you can find someone else able to treat, if needed.
● Will you show off the opossum like “show-and-tell”?
● Will you allow your children, their friends and your neighbors to come see and play with your “cute babies”?
● Are you not willing to learn everything you can about the opossum and its requirements?
● If you answered “YES” to any of these then maybe wildlife rehabilitation is not for you. That’s ok. It is not for everyone. Maybe consider volunteering at an animal shelter? Or join our team of educators and phone counselors. There is always something fun you can do to help the opossums!
● If you answered “NO” then great! Read on for some advice compiled from opossum rehabilitators……..
Advice to the new volunteer
● Join the Opossum Society of the United States!
● Find out about laws and permits regarding wildlife rehabilitation in your state, county and city. In most states, a license is required to be in possession of a wild animal, even for rehabilitation purposes. Many Homeowner’s Associations won’t allow it.
● Know your limits. You must be able to provide proper care for the animals in your hands. Know your limits and know when it is time to seek help or ask for assistance. Do not hesitate to seek veterinary help or contact a fellow rehabilitator if you have questions, concerns, or simply do not know what to do. We have been there too. We understand.
● Do not become overwhelmed. Many new rehabilitators take on too many responsibilities and quickly lose interest. We do not want to lose you!
● Maintain a low profile in your neighborhood. Many rehabilitators have been forced to stop taking in animals due to neighbor complaints.
● Enjoy! Have fun! Yes, it is a lot of work but there is nothing more rewarding than watching those babies you raised run away and live the life they should live, thanks to you!
● Learn everything you can about the opossum. Go to the library or bookstore and read books. Search the Internet. Attend wildlife or veterinary conferences. Work for a vet and learn basic animal care! Take wildlife rehabilitation courses. Never, never stop learning and sharing what you have learned with others.
● Before accepting any opossum you must make sure you have a veterinarian willing to work with you. NOW is the time to contact local veterinarians and find one willing to work with you. We have a list of veterinarians currently treating opossums but it is best if you can find your own since these vets are often overburdened already. We will be happy to mail an O.S.U.S. Veterinary Packet to any veterinarian interested in treating opossums. Or even better, once you have made contact with the veterinarian, hand deliver the packet we would mail to you.
● Protect yourself and your family. Avoid any bites or scratches. Wear gloves. Wash hands before and after handling opossums and their bedding. Obtain recommended vaccines such as tetanus and pre-exposure rabies.
● See a dead opossum along the road? If safe to do so, pull over and check for live young in a female’s pouch. If young are found then remove and warm the young. Pull the body to the side of the road to prevent other opossums from eating the carcass on the road and meeting a similar fate. Encourage friends to do the same!
● Remove the live babies from the dead mother’s teats by gently applying a half-turn to the baby’s head and body and gently pull to disconnect from the teat.
Responding to a call for help
1. Obtain Finder Information
Most wildlife rehabilitators are required by their state to keep records of each intake. The veterinarian can assist the wildlife rehabilitators by utilizing the included Incoming Opossum Caresheet or a similar form. Important information to obtain includes name, address, phone number of finder, when and how the opossum was obtained, any known history, and if food, milk, water or medication was offered. It is important to know who found an animal in case of zoonotic concerns. Knowing if cow’s milk was offered may help explain why the opossum has severe diarrhea.
Additional questions to ask caller include: Where was the animal found? Any injuries? Size? If it is greater than 7” long from nose to rump (not counting tail) and appears in good health then encourage the caller to leave the opossum alone. It does not need to be “rescued”. It is most likely a young juvenile on its own and while it may appear small and helpless it is best left alone, as long as it’s able to move around and is avoiding capture.
If the opossum is small and feels cold then encourage caller to warm the infant by gently wrapping in ravel-free towels and placing near but not directly against a heat source such as a heating pad set on low or a hot water bottle filled with warm water. The temperature of the towels near the opossum should approximate human body temperature, no hotter. The opossum and bedding material can be placed in a box and transported to you as soon as possible. Advise the caller NOT to feed the infant. It is best to bring the animal to the rehabilitator as soon as possible. Never offer cow’s milk. Encourage callers to keep the infants warm and to bring the opossums in as soon as possible, especially if they are young infants with eyes closed. The minimum age/size to attempt to raise is a judgment call. There is no cut off point. Be aware that “pinkies” can be difficult to raise, time consuming, and may often die. Many rehabilitators do not rehabilitate opossums under 15 grams. Others have successfully raised 8-10 gram infants. Some organizations have higher gram weight cutoffs.
If unable to immediately assist the caller then refer to the O.S.U.S. web site. The temporary orphan care section provides additional information for the caller:
Warn the caller about the risk of handling wildlife. It is important that the finder takes steps to avoid a bite. We do not want any human injuries nor do we want to risk the opossum’s life. An opossum bite often results in the killing of the opossum to check for rabies. Rabies is not common in the opossum but the risk exists with any mammal, including dogs and cats. Do not take the risk! It is vital that both you and the finder take appropriate steps!
While you are waiting for the arrival of the opossums, prepare a cage, warm heating pad, prepare fluids and/or food, prepare a first aid kit, just in case.
Upon arrival, thank the finder for his/her concern. Give the finder an O.S.U.S. brochure. Many people want to be kept informed about the opossums’ progress. If possible, please do so with an occasional phone call. It may be easier to allow the finder to call you occasionally. However, it is not advised to allow people to visit “their” opossum. Remember, the goal is to keep the animals wild for successful release. We want to minimize exposure to people.
2. Seek Veterinary Assistance
Find a veterinarian willing to work with you. The veterinarian should always inform the client about charges involved before administering treatments in order to prevent problems at time of discharge. Many veterinarians generously donate their services to help injured wildlife while others give discounts, ask for a donation to their wildlife fund, or charge full price. If you or the veterinarian are unable to offer assistance, refer the client to another hospital willing to help wildlife, another wildlife rehabilitator or animal control. Check first to make sure local animal control does not automatically euthanize all opossums.
Note to wildlife rehabilitators: Please remember your “vetiquette” i.e. appropriate behavior in the veterinary office. Please be considerate of the veterinarian and his/her staff. Remember that the veterinarian has a business to run and while he/she may be willing to treat the opossum, the paying clients may come first. The veterinarian will appreciate your patience and understanding.
Many veterinarians treat wildlife at no cost or at a discount. They are doing this out of their own generous goodwill and love for the animals. Show your appreciation by presenting the veterinarian and staff with a plate of homemade cookies or other sign of appreciation. DO NOT be rude and demanding. You must be courteous and patient. Ask about policies and prices before authorizing treatments to avoid problems at discharge.
3. Can I Keep It As A Pet?
NO! In most states it is illegal to be in the possession of a wild animal without the proper permits. But more important, as wildlife rehabilitators our goal is to rehabilitate opossums for return back to their natural habitat. Please try to get possession of the opossum from the public as soon as possible. Unfortunately, many well-meaning people try to raise an opossum themselves. This usually results in harm and/or death due to an improper diet or the inability to recognize signs of illness. The baby opossum may be cute now, but what will happen to it once it becomes an adult and the finder no longer wants it, or worse yet, it accidentally bites?
Your first opossums!
Initial Care:
● Examine the opossum from nose to tail for any signs of injury or health problem. A complete examination may be beyond the scope of your abilities at this time. With time and experience, you will learn how to perform a thorough examination and easily determine what is normal vs. abnormal. Always contact an experienced rehabilitator or veterinarian if injuries are found or if you have any concerns about your ability to identify health problems.
● If cold, warm the infants. Infant opossums cannot thermoregulate (self-regulate their body temperature) until approximately 70 days of age (approx. 5” nose to rump) so it is critical that you gradually warm the infants. Do so gradually using a heating pad set on low, hot water bottle filled with warm water, etc. Cover the heating device with a towel. Place the opossums near but not directly against the heating device and cover with bedding material or place opossums in an artificial pouch. Temperature of the bedding near the opossums should be about human body temperature (an opossum’s normal body temperature is 95 degrees, ours is 98.6). Do not warm the opossums too quickly. Going from one extreme to another is dangerous and can send the opossums into shock. Use the touch test; place your fingers on the surface the opossums will be placed on, if you feel the heat right away, it’s too hot. If you touch the heating surface and have to count to three to feel the heat, it’s just right.
● DO NOT feed the opossums until they are warm and hydrated. They will not be able to assimilate the formula.
● Rehydrate the infants following the feeding protocol listed in the Rehydrating section (pg. 13). Most baby opossums come in cold and suffering from some form of dehydration. It is important to first warm the infant before rehydrating and to offer a rehydrating solution before feeding formula. Formula must be introduced gradually as listed in the Feeding section (pg. 14).
● Weigh the infants to monitor growth. If they are losing weight after 48 hours, contact an experienced rehabilitator.
● Keep accurate records including the name, address, telephone number of finder, where found, what was offered (if anything), record of the opossum’s progress (appetite, weight, bowel movements, etc.), where released, etc.
Be prepared:
● You never know when you may get an opossum. Always be prepared!
● Have a cage set up ahead of time (see housing guidelines); prepare cage with newspaper lining, multi-layers of ravel-free bedding, warm heating pad or other heating device.
● Have emergency equipment in your car (carrier, box, blankets, towels, gloves, heating element with cigarette lighter adaptor).
● Always have food and rehydrating solution on hand.
● Have emergency phone numbers and rehabilitator contacts available.
Basic supplies
Always be prepared. You never know when an opossum will arrive. Before orphan season begins make sure you have at least the following supplies on hand:
• Fox Valley formula for opossums (check expiration date)
• Or Esbilac (puppy milk substitute), KMR (kitten milk replacer)
• Or Goat milk (powdered or liquid, pasteurized and available at most grocery stores)
• Sterilized bone meal powder
• Purina Kitten Chow (original formula, not dairy formula)
• Caltrate 600 tablets (Calcium carbonate) or other calcium supplement
• Lactated Ringers Solution (LRS) -available from veterinarians, Pedialyte or other rehydrating solution- available at most grocery stores
• Syringes, eye dropper, or other feeding utensils
• Jar lids, shallow bowls
• Ravel-free bedding material such as baby receiving blankets (Check with
friends, relatives, thrift shops, etc. for free or cheap bedding material)
• Do not use terry cloth. Baby nails and toes are easily caught and torn in terry cloth
• Make sure there are no holes or loose strings in the bedding material, which may act as a noose and injure the infant opossum
• Artificial pouches (ex; sweatshirt sleeves, flannel pieces sewn on three sides)
• Boxes, pet carriers or cages are acceptable for infants but make sure there are no small holes. Grid on a wire cage or carrier must be ½ inch or less
• Gram scale. It is important to have an accurate scale for feeding babies and monitoring growth. Babies must be weighed at least every other day
• Heating element (heating pad set on low, hot water bottle filled with warm water, heatable flax seed pillow, latex glove filled with warm water, Snuggle-Safe Disc, etc.)
• Incubator. An incubator is important for maintaining heat and humidity. See our instructions for a homemade Waterbator:
• First aid kit for emergency care
• Bandaging material
• Laundry detergent and bleach (Opossums are very sensitive to odors. Please use unscented form.)
• Pyrethrin-based flea powder
Please note that opossums are very sensitive to odors. DO NOT wear perfume or other scents. Some animals may “bite” to taste the intriguing scent.
Terms and Equivalents
SID = once a day (every 24 hours)
BID = twice a day (every 12 hours)
TID = three times a day
(every 8 hours)
QID = four times a day (every 6 hours)
EOD = every other day
1TBID = 1 tablet given 2 times a day
q = every (ex. q4h = every 4 hours)
PRN = as needed
AU = both ears
AD = right ear
AS = left ear
OU = both eyes
OD = right eye
OS = left eye
PO = per os (oral or by mouth)
NPO = No food/water
SQ (SubQ or SC) = subcutaneous
ID = intradermal
IM = intramuscular
IV = intravenous
IP = intraperitoneal
IC = intracardiac
IO = intraosseous
Ab = antibiotic
Dx = diagnosis
Tx = treatment
Sx = surgery
Rx = prescription
BW = body weight
1 milliliter (ml) = 1 cc
1 drop = 0.05 ml
1 teaspoon (tsp) = 5 ml
1 Tablespoon (T) = 3 tsp
1 T = 15 ml = 1/2 fluid ounce (fl.oz.)
1 cup (c) = 8 fl.oz. = 240 ml
1 ounce (oz) = 28.35 grams (g)
1 g = 0.035 oz
1 lb = 16 oz = 453.6 g = 0.454 kg
1 kilogram (kg) = 1000 g = 2.2 lb
UDA = urination, defecation, appetite
PE = physical exam
NSF = no such findings (nothing found
on a physical examination)
BAR = bright, alert/active, responsive
BARH = bright, alert, responsive,
hydrated
QAR = quiet, alert, responsive
EENT = ears, eyes, nose, throat
T = Temp = temperature
TPR = temperature, pulse, respiration
HR = heart rate
BW = body weight
BM = bowel movement
Stat = immediate
HBC = hit by car
DOA = dead on arrival
D = dead
R = released
E = euthanized
PA = placed (unreleasable animal)
T = transferred
Ca:P = calcium to phosphorous ratio
MBD = metabolic bone disease
UTI = urinary tract infection
URI = upper respiratory infection
GI = gastrointestinal
CNS = central nervous system
CPR = cardio pulmonary resuscitation
LRS = lactated ringers solution
LRS D5W = LRS with 5% dextrose
Dex = dexamethasone
ventral = abdomen
dorsal = back
cranial = head
caudal = towards the tail
CBC = complete blood count
PCV = packed cell volume
Hct = hematocrit
TP = total protein
WBC = white blood cell
RBC = red blood cell
How to read a syringe
Rehabilitators use syringes for feeding orphans as well as medicating opossums. You must learn how to read and use a syringe in order to accurately feed opossums and administer medication, if needed.
Syringes come in various sizes. The sizes most often used are 1 cc (or ml) and 3 cc (or ml). What is a cc or ml? A cc is short for cubic centimeter, a unit of measurement, while ml is short for milliliter. Both of these units of measurement are used interchangeably.
1 cc = 1 ml
Read the syringe from bottom (site of where needle would attach) to top (see diagram below). The example below is a 1 cc syringe. Each line represents 0.1 cc (or ml). 10 lines equal 10 x 0.1 = 1cc. If you want ½ cc of fluid you would draw the fluid up to the 0.5 line.
Draw formula or fluids into the syringe by placing the tip (minus the needle) into the fluids and gently pulling on the plunger until desired amount is drawn. Tap to remove air bubbles. Expel fluids by applying gentle pressure on plunger.
If you do not understand, please ask for individual help. It is critical that you correctly read a syringe!
Be careful not to prick yourself with the needle. Dispose of used needles and syringes in appropriate containers or return to your veterinarian for disposal.
1cc syringe (with needle attached)
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Rehydrating
Most orphaned opossums will be presented to you in varying stages of dehydration. Some or all of the following signs may be observed: “tenting” of the skin (skin along the back will not immediately snap back into place when gently pinched), sunken eyes, slit-like eyes, scaly skin, lethargy, pale mucous membrane coloring. Assume all incoming opossums are suffering from some degree of dehydration. A rehydrating solution should be administered to all incoming orphans. Refer to oral rehydrating fluids below. After warming the opossums, administer warmed (not microwaved) rehydrating solution orally for the first 3-6 feedings during the first 18-24 hours after intake. Rehydrating fluids not only hydrate the animal’s body but also “cleanse” the digestive tract in preparation for introduction of the substitute milk formula. Please do not skip this step. Life-threatening diarrhea may occur if formula is introduced prior to rehydrating. In cases of moderate to severe dehydration, subcutaneous or intravenous fluids should be administered. Please consult a veterinarian.
An opossum that comes in with dirt in or around its mouth has been separated from its mother long enough for it to start seeking moisture or nutrients from the soil.
Oral rehydrating fluid examples:
1. Lactated Ringers Solution (LRS) (undiluted) – preferred solution
2. Pedialyte (dilute 1:2) – preferred solution
3. Gatorade (dilute 1:3)
4. Apple juice (dilute 1:5)
Stimulation to expel waste
A mother opossum licks the perineal (anal and genital area) of her young in order for the infants to urinate and defecate. It is important for you to simulate this behavior. Holding the opossum upon a surface, lift and hold the tail aloft between two fingers. Manually stimulate the young prior to feeding by gently rubbing the perineal area with a cotton ball, cotton swab, tissue or cloth moistened with warm water. Rub gently from front to back until the opossum urinates and defecates. Do not be alarmed if the opossum does not eliminate each time. For the opossum(s) who didn’t eliminate prior to feeding, try getting them to eliminate after feeding. The others may have licked the area causing the young to eliminate in the bedding. Using a non-toxic marker, mark the opossum that has not eliminated and check next time. If still not eliminating and seems bloated or uncomfortable then contact an experienced rehabilitator as soon as possible. Also, read the Common Orphan Care Problems and Solutions section included.
As soon as you see those little turds and pee-balls in the litter box provided in their cage, you know you can stop manually stimulating them. Provide a litter box when the opossums are old enough to leave their man-made pouch and walk around the cage. Also provide a hamster size water bottle hanging from the side of the cage. Bowls of water left in the cages can become an invitation for the babies to defecate in them.
Feeding
You may eventually want to learn how to tube feed opossums. Tube feeding is a quick and accurate method of feeding a large number of opossums. However, there are some risks involved such as aspirating formula into the lungs and puncturing delicate membranes. There is a tube-feeding video at the end of the Orphan Care DVD and a tube-feeding attachment is provided with this manual. For now, we would like you to learn how to hand feed using a syringe, catheter tip or eyedropper. Opossums do not suck like other mammals therefore feeding with a nursing bottle and nipple is difficult as you must maintain the flow of formula.
Weigh infants prior to feeding. Use an accurate gram scale. Please consult the enclosed Diet Sheets and Feeding Chart for approximate feeding amounts. Feed a minimum of 3 feedings of rehydrating solution (over the first 18-24 hours, although more may be required if dehydrated) and then gradually introduce formula as follows:
¾ part rehydrating solution + ¼ part formula
½ part rehydrating solution + ½ part formula
¼ part rehydrating solution + ¾ part formula
Make formula as instructed on diet sheet. Warm the rehydrating solution and formula just prior to feeding. Warming in the microwave is not recommended due to potential risks of overheating, uneven heating, creating hot spots or destroying electrolytes in the rehydrating solution. You can draw formula into a syringe and then place the syringe into a cup of warm-hot water. Always test heat prior to feeding by placing a few drops of warmed fluids on the inside of your wrist. It should feel slightly warm. Keep fluids/formula warm by placing in a coffee cup on a coffee cup heater or placing filled syringes in a cup of warm water. Draw fluid into syringe. Slowly offer warmed rehydrating solution or formula (after rehydrating) drop by drop.
Note: The formula information presented here represents the current recommendations of O.S.U.S. You may follow our old formula recipe, or preferably, contact Fox Valley Animal Nutrition, Inc. to purchase ready-made formula for opossums. Just add water and follow instructions. There are two different products available for different developmental stages. Make sure you order the appropriate formula.
To order Fox Valley formula call:
1- (800) 679-4666
Hold infant gently but securely in a soft, ravel-free cloth in an upright position. Wrap body until just head exposed. Some opossums are more comfortable holding onto the syringe during feeding and may prefer to have their front “hands” exposed while others prefer to be wrapped up to the head. Try experimenting to see what works best for you and the opossums.
Place syringe tip on the opossum’s upper lip and administer a drop of formula. It takes patience! This is a very slow process, one drop at a time. It can take several minutes to feed each infant. Eventually the opossum will begin to lap at the syringe tip. You can also attach a plastic IV catheter tip (without needle) to the end of the syringe, a Tom Cat catheter (cut to desired length, smooth edges), a French feeding tube or other similar device to the syringe tip. Offer fluid very slowly. Forcing fluid or feeding too quickly can cause fluid to enter the lungs resulting in pneumonia and death. If you see fluid coming out of the nose, then stop feeding, blot the excess fluid, turn infant upside down and gently pat back. Keep infant warm and monitor. Seek assistance of an experienced rehabilitator. Antibiotics may be required.
Place fed opossums in a separate pouch to prevent double feedings or forgetting to feed one. Always count infants when placing back into cage. They cling to fabric. It is very easy to miss one and accidentally place it in the washing machine along with the soiled bedding material.
If the opossums refuse the formula, dilute it a bit more, then gradually get up to full strength. You may have to go back and forth in dilution proportions to get them up to full strength. Always prepare and refrigerate the formula a couple of hours before warming it and feeding it. This allows the formula to fully dissolve before the first feeding.
Feeding Tips
1. If the opossum wiggles a lot and won’t eat then try stimulating it to urinate/defecate. Then try feeding again.
2. Won’t urinate/defecate? Check the water temperature that you’re dipping your cotton ball into. Some will not eliminate if the water is cold. Try rubbing whatever you’re using gently for a longer period of time. Do not press too hard or you will cause irritation.
3. The best way to hold the infant while feeding is to wrap it in a soft cloth and cupping the infant in your hand. Hold the tail between two fingers and hold the head with your thumb and first finger. Feed with your other hand. Or you can wrap the opossum like a burrito, tucking the tail and lower limbs into it also. Leave a little hood over their head so they are not staring up into the eyes of a predator (you). Leave mouth accessible.
4. When weighing babies, an accurate weight is important. Please remember to “zero” the scale or note the weight of container used to weigh the infants into consideration.
5. Purchase “O-Ring” syringes for feeding orphans. They last longer and glide smoother.
6. Have a sick opossum? Feed the sick opossum last. Use separate, marked feeding utensils. Do not risk contaminating the littermates.
7. Always separate a sick or injured opossum from the litter or cannibalism may occur.
Weaning
Weaning can begin once the eyes have opened and it can walk, although they may still be a little wobbly. Generally, weaning can begin around 45 grams or more in body weight. Place shallow jar lids filled with formula in the cage. Encourage the infants to lap by gently sticking their lips into the formula. Encourage stubborn opossums to lap by placing a small drop of corn syrup in the lid or around the edge of the jar lid. Change formula often, at least every 4-6 hours, to prevent bacterial buildup.
Please see enclosed Diet Sheets for weaning and pre-release diets. Continue to closely monitor each infant. The belly should be gently rounded. Some opossums may require supplemental hand feedings until fully self-feeding.
Post-Weaning
Gradually add blended Purina Kitten Chow© (original formula) to the formula. Soak the dry kitten chow in warm water for about 20 minutes, drain off the excess water. Blend the soaked chow in a blender, you may have to add some more water to get a pudding consistency. Add small amounts of the chow pudding to the milk formula at a time. At first it should look like a few globules in the shallow lid or bowl containing the formula. Over the next few days to a week, thicken with more ground chow until you are feeding only the chow pudding. Once the opossums are eating the chow pudding start offering a diet consisting of 80% kitten chow and 20% supplements (fruits, vegetables, yogurt, egg, sardines in water, etc.) Do not exceed 20% supplements or you will cause dietary imbalances and risk causing a diet-related disorder. You can start strengthening the chow mix pudding by eventually serving soaked chow without blending, then a slightly firmer chow soaked for a shorter period of time, then solid kitten chow. If they quit eating, go back to the consistency they were accepting readily and wait a few days to advance them to a thicker consistency.
In order to prevent Metabolic Bone Disease (MBD), you must add ¼ teaspoon of calcium carbonate (ground up Caltrate 600 tablets will work) to every cup of chow/supplements. I.E., if you have two opossums, they will eat about 1/3 cup of chow per day, add ¼ tsp of pure calcium carbonate. Once you are serving solid chow, sprinkle the calcium carbonate mixture atop the kibbles, then spritz with some water so the calcium soaks into the kibble.
At least 2 weeks prior to release you can offer live foods such as crickets, mealworms, etc. Scatter chow and a small amount (20% of diet) of fruit and vegetables around cage to help the young get used to the idea of scavenging for food. Always have fresh water available in a shallow bowl, jar lid or hanging water bottle.
Housing
• In brief…
Appropriate housing depends on the age, size and number of opossums. In general, the more space you are able to provide the better. While infant opossums may be kept indoors in an incubator, aquarium, pet carrier, box or cage (1/2 inch grid), older opossums need more space and need to graduate to a 36” cage, then into an outdoor run.
Some states require their licensed rehabilitators to adhere to the National Wildlife Rehabilitators Association/International Wildlife Rehabilitators Council (NWRA/IWRC) collaborated Minimum Housing Guidelines for all wildlife species, which are periodically updated. Included in this material is the 4th edition, which is the most current, which can be purchased in its entirety online at:
Information referred to in 4.1 – 4.3 (restricted quarters for injured animals) and section 5.1 – 5.3 (housing considerations per habits of marsupials) is covered in this manual.
Note that some states and United States Fish & Wildlife Service are adhering to the 3rd edition.
Exercise Wheel Plans for grown/captive opossums are available on the O.S.U.S. website at:
. Some rehabilitators scale down the wheel for juvenile opossums or purchase a ferret exercise wheel. Opossums will eliminate in the wheel, so a pee pad should be placed underneath it and have space between the slats or gridfor their elimination to drain out, but not so much space that their feet will get caught.
Do not use a cage with a grid larger than ½ inch x 1 inch. If a larger grid is used, the opossum may stick its nose and head through and either escape or get stuck. The opossum may become injured or die trying to free itself.
Never house young that are not the same size together (unless they are known litter mates). Never house a sick or injured opossum with others no matter how slight the wound. Cannibalism can occur. Never overcrowd. Again, cannibalism can occur in addition to self-mutilation resulting from stress. Visit OSUS website for info on cannibalism: When opossums are moved to an outside run, provide a den box for every 3-4 opossums.
• Hairless infants (‘pinkies’)
Please note it is extremely difficult to raise “pinkies”, infants entirely pink with no hair or pigmentation. It may be best to take these to a veterinarian for euthanasia. If possible, transfer hairless infants to a lactating female if there are a sufficient number of functional teats available. Attempt to re-attach the young paying particular attention to ensure the infants do not fall out. Warm the baby to your body temperature, no more, before placing in the pouch. If you place the baby in the pouch and it is not outside the pouch the following day, you have successfully completed a surrogacy. If it is outside the pouch, it has been rejected or there’s not a spare functioning teat for it. You will have to hand feed or consider euthanasia.
Some wildlife centers won’t take pinkies under a certain gram weight because they are fragile and labor-intensive with their more frequent feeding schedule. Caring for a litter of pinkies will take a rehabilitator out of circulation when they could be caring for three times as many opossums of a larger weight with a significantly greater success rate.
You have to consider that they were exposed to something traumatic enough to kill their mom which could radiate into their little bodies. They are so fragile at that age, a hard enough blow or trauma to mom opossums may not manifest itself until days or weeks later in the pinkie baby.
With pinkies and older you need to consider they may have been suckling on dead mom’s rancid milk. It is very important to clear their system out with rehydrating fluids as the first few feedings to prepare them for the strange milk they will be receiving. A mother opossum’s milk changes 13 times while the babies are nursing and growing. Obviously, we are approaching their formula with “one size fits all” mentality. There simply is not a commercial need (profit) involved in making opossum milk substitution so we get as close as we can.
We can’t save them all. We do what we can to save the most.
• Infants, eyes closed
The opossum is a marsupial, requiring special housing during the time it would normally grow and develop inside the female opossum’s pouch. The pouch normally provides the young with a source of nutrition as well as warmth, protection and moisture. We must do our best to imitate the special environment provided by the pouch.
Place the young infants (less than 4 inches in body length, not including tail) in an incubator or make a Critter Care Waterbator (pg. 46). If not available then maintain humidity by placing a moistened cloth next to the heating pad and/or a bottle of warm water in the corner of a cardboard box, computer paper box or pet carrier (cover holes or grid if larger than ½ inch). Make sure bottle is secured to the side of the cage, will not topple, is covered to protect the opossums from the heat and that the opossums cannot climb inside and drown. You could use a plastic container and punch holes in the lid.
Infant opossums are not able to thermoregulate (maintain their own body temperatures) and therefore require an external heat source. Keep hairless infants indoors in an incubator, if possible. Infants should be placed in an artificial pouch until approximately 90 days old. The pouch temperature and humidity should be approximately 95 degrees F and 75-85%, respectively. Monitor with a reliable hygrometer or at least a thermometer placed near the infants’ bedding.
Make a pouch using sweatshirt sleeves about 18 inches long or use a flannel pillowcase or piece of wool blanket. Pouch should be about 6 or 8 inches in size for small litters. A pillowcase-sized pouch is appropriate for larger litters (greater than 6 in number). Never use terry cloth or material with holes or loose threads. Turn sleeve inside out with seam showing. Roll or fold the wrist area over and insert opossums through the other end. Make sure there are no loose threads or holes! Check often to make sure an infant has not fallen out of the pouch. Lightly rub baby oil on hairless infants once or twice a day. If they seem dry (tails are the best indicator, if the skin is cracking and flaking) then check they are not getting too hot or the humidity is too low.
Try to place a single infant with other opossums of similar size and age, if possible. The singleton can be introduced during the day, while everyone’s sleeping. Wrap the singleton in its own smaller pouch and place in and next to the sleeping litter. When they wake up at night, they will have been inhaling each other’s scent and they won’t be such strangers. If a similar size litter is not available then a small stuffed toy can be placed inside the pouch to allow the opossum an object to “snuggle” next to.
• Infants, eyes open
Once the eyes have opened and the infants are well furred you may remove them from the pouch and cover with layers of bedding material inside an incubator, aquarium, pet carrier or box. Place a heating pad or other heating device under a part of the housing container allowing the young to move to the unheated area if they are too hot. Make sure part of the pouch is on the unheated part of the cage bottom. Opossums would rather maintain their concealment, even if it is too hot, than move to an open area to sleep. Maintain humidity by placing a damp towel below the bedding material, inside the housing container. The top of the housing container can also be covered with a damp cloth if more humidity is needed. Moisten towels as needed.
Warning: Infant opossums may not always move away from the heat source when hot nor may they always return to the heat source when cold. As a consequence, the young may die. It is very important to constantly monitor the young at this stage. It is not a good sign for the opossum to be sleeping in the open.
Also, at this stage the introduction of other opossums to the litter is not recommended due to the possibility of cannibalism. If you are going to introduce another opossum then please do so with extreme caution. Watch for signs of rejection and/or aggression such as “cacking” sounds, growling, movement of an individual away from the others, missing pieces of ears, tails or digits. Never place an injured opossum with a healthy litter and never mix litters of different sizes.
• Weaned infants (beginning to walk, well-furred, self-feeding or almost self-feeding)
Once you can observe that everyone is eating, drinking and eliminating regularly, you no longer need to weigh them. At this stage, it is only necessary to weigh them if you observe one not growing or indications of dehydration (their eyes are not bright and buggy). At approximately 75 days of age the opossums should be placed in a cage allowing for more movement as follows:
Number of opossums Size (nose to rump, not including tail) Cage size (LxWxH)**
5-8 4-5 inches 34” x 20” x 20”
5-8 5-6 inches 46” x 20” x 20”
5-8 6-7 inches 31” x 40” x 25”
or
36” x 30” x 36”
** Minimum cage size, in inches
Use ½ inch grid only. A cage with larger grid can be dangerous. Make sure the bottom grid is covered with newspaper or towels to provide a comfortable walking surface and prevent the opossum from falling through. Be careful when removing opossums from a wire cage. They will latch on with feet and tails. Do not pull it off! If an opossum has grasped the cage, use a forward and upward motion to dislodge gently. Use two hands. Grasp tail with one hand and the body with the other. Use your spare fingers to unhook their individual feet and let them latch their feet onto your fingers as they release their grip from the cage. Always count infants after changing bedding material, newspaper lining, or cleaning cage. Infants may latch onto the material. It is very easy to accidentally toss one into the washing machine or the trash if you do not count opossums and account for each one prior to washing or disposing of trash.
Discontinue heat when opossums are around 4 1/2 months old (approximately 4 1/2” from nose to rump, well-furred, able to maintain their own body temperatures for 24 hours, weaned). Growing opossums need to be able to exercise and climb as well as get away from others in the litters if desired. When the opossums are approximately 5-6” in body length (from nose to rump) and self-feeding, they can be moved into a large outdoor enclosure. Contact with people should be limited to feeding, cleaning and daily monitoring purposes only. Place the opossums in a quiet location, away from the public and pets. Since the goal is to keep the opossums wild, contact with staff and others must be kept to a minimum. A rehabilitation center is not a zoo. Animals should not be on display.
Your State Fish and Wildlife officers understand the need to adjust the dimensions of enclosures to comply with local ordinances that don’t allow enclosures to be taller than the fences separating residential properties. Sometimes you need to make a cage longer to make up for making the height shorter which is considered a variance from the NWRA/IWRC minimum cage standards. You might wish to discuss this with your state agency before building or purchasing cages. Most states require you to build and have the cages pass inspection before allowing you any animals. Be sure you are in agreement with your state wildlife agency on caging sizes, placement of cages, etc.
Place outdoor cages in an area protected from the elements (heat, rain, etc) and predators. Some animals may be able to injure opossums through the grid so be aware of any potential risks. Place and secure non-toxic branches, a den box(es) and layers of bedding material in the cage. Try to mimic the natural habitat as much as possible. Clean cages, removing layers of soiled newspaper and replacing with fresh. Scoop out the litter box daily or more often, if needed.
Place the opossums in a cage large enough to allow for movement, climbing, and an opportunity to get away from the littermates. Never overcrowd! Remember, these are minimum recommendations. Larger cage sizes are preferred. Hollow logs and at least two nesting boxes per eight opossums are also recommended.
At this age contact should be limited to feeding, cleaning and daily monitoring purposes only. You do not want the opossums to become too familiar with you and too “friendly’ with people.
They should get used to daytime neighborhood noises such as gardening equipment and air-conditioning compressors.
Opossums in outdoor cages can be kept cool during the hot summer months by keeping the cages in the shade, covering with a light fabric (make sure the fabric does not retain heat in the cage) or installing a misting system. Another way is to fill plastic water bottles with water, freeze, wrap in a towel when frozen and place near the opossums. Replace when thawed.
• Pre-release juveniles
At this stage place in large outdoor runs with several branches, logs and 2 or 3 den boxes (depending on number of opossums). If you do not have a large run then please place opossums with another rehabilitator. This is where networking becomes important. You can share knowledge as well as caging. Never overcrowd or cannibalism can occur!
Outdoor runs are utilized to “wild up” opossums in preparation for release. Place opossums in outdoor runs at approximately 4 ½-5 months of age. At least 2 weeks prior to release. Run sizes are as follows:
Number of opossums Size (nose to rump, not including tail) Run size (LxWxH)**
6-10 7-9 inches 4’ x 4’ x 8’
or
6’ x 4’ x 6’
11-14 7-9 inches 8’ x 4’ x 6’
or
6’ x 8’ x 8’
15-20 7-9 inches 12’ x 4’ x 8’
**Minimum cage size, in feet, general guidelines only
Note about outdoor pest control: Watch for pests such as flies, bees, ants and fleas around the outdoor cages. Treat appropriately. Several products are available on the market. Ask your hardware store or garden store salesperson for a safe, suitable product. There are a number of sprays, dusts and baits available. Make sure the product will not harm animals, including pets and other wildlife that may become exposed to the product. If using pesticide sprays, remove opossums from the cages prior to treatment. Clean cages after chemical treatment and dry completely before placing opossums back in the cages. Fly traps can be hung near cages and changed as needed. Avoid fly strips due to the risk of accidentally catching a bird in the sticky strip. DO NOT USE GLUE TRAPS.
For those interested in natural methods of pest control, there are several options available including a dust called diatomaceous earth. Sprinkle the dust on the ground around the cage or create a pest barrier by circling the perimeter with a layer of dust. This will control several types of bugs and insects including ants. Plant Penny Royale plants around the outdoor cages for natural flea control.
If you are experiencing a heavy ant problem inside the cages, removing food from the cages during the day and cleaning more frequently may help.
Litterbox training (optional)
It is possible to train opossums to use a litter pan (actually they train themselves). Litter training makes cage cleaning easier. Once the opossums are able to walk and defecate on their own, collect a few of their stools and place in a large plastic saucer or lid filled with clumping cat litter. Or try stimulating the opossums over the litter pan, allowing some feces/urine to drop into the litter pan. Place the litter pan, food bowl water bottle/bowl, and sleeping area arranged in a triangle formation. Have the feeding bowl/hanging water bottle in one angle of the triangle, sleeping quarters in one angle and in the third corner, the litter box. They like to feel at least one side is protected, so place the litter box in a corner, against the cage wall that is covered. If opossums are not using the litter pan, place a shallow lid of water in the middle of the litter pan to encourage use. Many opossums urinate/defecate in water. The litter pan must be larger than the length of the opossum in order to be effective. Larger runs with large litters, two litter pans may be required.
Rule of thumb; three opossums should be able to fit in the litter pan at once. You will need to increase the size of the litter pan as the opossums grow. Same with the feeding dishes, three snouts should be able to fit in the food bowl at once. You may have to add a second or third food bowl, depending on how many you are housing together and the size of your bowls.
Using litter pans make cage cleaning easier. Opossums will not go looking for litter pans after released. They will eliminate so many feet from where they have woken up and then go look for food a bit further. We have had old, injured opossums who just needed some time for their wounds to heal go right in the litter box their first night in captivity (no training necessary, just the proximity placement of litter box, food bowl and den). Then again, some will not go in the litter pan.
Note: It is not uncommon for opossums to defecate or urinate in their food and water bowls. If you are experiencing this, offer additional water bowls and change contaminated bowls frequently. You can encourage them to defecate elsewhere by placing a litter pan with a shallow jar lid filled with water in the litter pan. You may also hang a water bottle, hamster size at first, but monitor to ensure they are drinking out of the water bottle. Opossums are able to smell the water in the nipple of the bottle and bite or bump it, quickly acquiring the ability to dispense water into their mouths. By the time they are ready for an outdoor run, you may need to hang two rabbit size bottles.
Because opossums will not drink warm water, after a particularly hot day you’ll need to dump the hanging water bottles and refill them with cool water before the opossums arise for the night.
Disinfecting cages, bedding and feeding utensils
Always clean and disinfect feeding utensils after each use and cages daily, more so if needed. Cages should be thoroughly disinfected after each litter is released and after a sick opossum is discovered and separated. Remember, good hygiene is important for good health!
• Cages
Disinfect cages with a stiff brush and a solution of ¾ c. bleach in I gallon hot water. Use only unscented bleach (5.25%). Check bleach label to make sure the product has disinfecting properties and contains a minimum of 5.25% active ingredient (Sodium Hypochlorite) as not all bargain brand or scented bleaches do. Follow with a thorough rinse, a scrub with soapy water, and another thorough rinse. Allow to dry completely before placing opossums in the cage. Do not use scented bleach. Other disinfectants such as Nolvasan (obtain from veterinarians, pet store or animal supply catalogue) can also be used. Dilute according to instructions on label.
Note: Remember to separate a sick or injured opossum from the others. Do not place in the same cage or cannibalism can occur.
• Bedding
Bedding can be washed in hot water and unscented laundry detergent. Add ½ c. bleach (5.25%) per load. Always count number of infants prior to washing bedding material. They cling to the material and it is easy to accidentally wash one if you are not careful!
• Feeding utensils
Feeding utensils can be washed in hot, soapy water containing 3 T. bleach (5.25%). It is best to use separate feeding utensils for a sick opossum. Mark these utensils and wash separately. Do not use these utensils to feed other opossums.
Preparing opossums for release
• Appropriate size? Unless there are physical handicaps or other problems, the opossums should be released by the time they are 7” long (from nose to rump, not including tail), or about 1 pound (453+ grams).
• Good health? The opossum should be healthy, active, alert, etc.
• Appropriate behaviors? The opossum should be able to climb, find food (preferably live food) scattered around the outdoor enclosure, should come out only at night, should try to climb the cage, run away or freeze as you approach. The opossum should not approach you and should not be tame. Note: opossums are food driven and once you place food in their enclosures, don’t expect them to display the same fear and avoidance of you they normally would while eating.
• An appropriate release site should be selected before release. Consult experienced rehabilitators or your state agency for acceptable release sites. The area should be near the site the opossum was originally found, have year-round access to natural foods and water, low number of predators, dense shrubs, etc. Remember, no area is completely “safe”. We can only select the best site and hope for the best. Check proposed release sites during the day and night. Opossums have a smell memory of at least one year. Putting them right back in the foraging area of their mother means they can follow her scent trails to the food, water and shelter sites she was able to utilize. They have a much better chance of survival if they are put back where they came from rather than set free in an unfamiliar area. If they came from an urban environment which typically offers plenty food source due to man’s living habits, and are instead put into the wilderness, they will have more competition for food. While their “wilderness” foraging range has been studied, the range and habits of urban opossums has not. In the wilderness they have about a three mile foraging range. The range of urban opossums is thought to be a much smaller area due to the availability of a larger variety of food sources such as insects, snails, dog and cat food left out, garbage and fallen fruit.
• Check weather conditions a few days after the proposed release date. Do not release if a storm is predicted. Do not release around the July 4th Holiday or other major holidays that typically involve a lot of outdoor festivities, especially fireworks.
• Feed a light meal prior to release. Travel to release site at dusk and open the carrier, preferably facing into a dense shrub. The opossums should be interested in their surroundings and leave. If one does not leave or returns to you then take it back and allow it more time before re-releasing. Or leave the box and check it early in the morning to see if any one or more may have stayed behind or returned.
• Cat chow can be scattered around the release area to provide a “back up” food source for a few days after release.
• Opossums should not be tamed. Any opossum that is too friendly, approaches you, tries to climb up your arm, etc. is in serious danger of being killed once released. Remember, “friendly” animals are often considered to be rabid. The friendly opossum is likely to approach a person and be killed. If you have a tamed opossum the best thing to do is to turn it over to another rehabilitator. Often a change in setting and simply getting away from you will be enough to cause the opossum to “wild up”. If still too friendly then contact O.S.U.S. or your state animal regulatory agency for advice.
• For additional release information please see Preparing Opossums For Release sheet.
• Preparing YOU for the release: Yes, it is hard to release them, especially at first. But take pride in knowing you made a difference! You gave an opossum a second chance at life.
Common Orphan Care Problems and Solutions
|Problem |Symptoms |Causes |Solutions |
| |Sunken eyes |Separation from mother |Monitor heat and humidity |
|Dehydration |Skin tents |Too much heat |Accurately measure formula |
| |Dry, scaly skin |Insufficient humidity |Stop formula, offer rehydrating solution over next|
| |Pale mucous membranes |Formula too concentrated |12-24 hours, then gradually add formula |
| |Lethargic |Feeding before rehydrated | |
| |Dirt in and around mouth | | |
| |Cold infant |Exposed to elements |Warm infant by placing near but not directly |
|Hypothermia |Lethargic |Unable to thermoregulate |against heat source |
| | |Insufficient heat source |Monitor temperature |
| | | |Provide layers of bedding |
| |Distended abdomen |Over feeding |Feed smaller amounts |
|Bloat |Uncomfortable |Too frequent feedings |Warm infant before feedings |
| |Lethargic |Feeding cow’s milk |Warm infant, gently stroke abdomen |
| |Not urinating |Spoiled formula |Do not let formula sit out at room temperature, |
| |or defecating |Failure to stimulate orphan to |refrigerate |
| | |urinate and defecate |Do not reheat unused formula, discard |
| | |Unable to urinate |Stop formula feeding and administer rehydrating |
| | |or defecate |solution for 12-24 hours, then gradually add |
| | |Punctured bladder |formula |
| | | |ALWAYS stimulate infant to urinate/defecate before|
| | | |or after feeding! Gently rub genital area with |
| | | |cotton ball moistened with warm water |
| |Soft, runny stools |Feeding cow’s milk |Same as above |
|Diarrhea | |Spoiled formula |Sterilize feeding utensils after each use |
| | |Formula too concentrated |Deworm (Contact O.S.U.S. if unsure about deworming|
| | |Dirty feeding utensils |recommendations) |
| | |Parasites | |
| |Difficulty walking (frog-like) |Poor diet |Feed high quality, balanced diet with sufficient |
|Metabolic Bone Disease |Inability to grip |Insufficient dietary calcium |Ca and proper Ca:P ratio |
|(MBD) |Fragile, broken bones |Improper Ca:P ratio |Supportive care |
| |Deformities | |See vet. if moderate to severe |
| |Eating other opossums |Poor husbandry |Provide sufficient food |
|Cannibalism (Rare) |May also self-mutilate |Overcrowding |Do not overcrowd |
| |Pay particular attention to chewed |Stress |Minimize stress |
| |ears, tail, toes |Inadequate diet |After eyes open, use caution when mixing litters |
| | |Improper diet |Watch for problems and signs of aggression, listen|
| | |Placing injured opossum with healthy |for “cacking” sounds, separate immediately |
| | |Mixing different sizes |NEVER place injured animal in cage with others! |
| | |Sick opossum | |
Medical problems and emergency treatments
(For the more experienced rehabilitator)
Treating medical problems may be beyond the scope of your abilities at this time. However, it is important to be able to identify an early health problem and seek veterinary assistance before it becomes serious and deadly. Remember, opossums are wild animals. They will not show signs of illness as a dog or cat would. You must be extremely observant and notice any abnormalities, no matter how slight. The best way to determine if something is abnormal is by experience. Over time you will see what is normal in an opossum and then you will be able to determine when something is abnormal. Some conditions should be easily detectable such as dehydration, anemia and bloat. The following information will help you identify and treat common problems found in orphaned opossums.
1. Hit By Car
Most opossums that have been hit by a car will suffer some fractures and head trauma. They may be in shock.
Opossums have a low normal body temperature, 94-97 degrees F. Shock lowers the body temperature even more and can therefore be a serious problem in the opossum. Common signs of shock include pale or white mucous membranes, slow capillary refill time, cold extremities, decreased blood pressure and unresponsiveness.
The animal should first be treated for shock and any life-threatening conditions. See the Shock (.2) section following. The opossum can then be placed in a quiet location until stable and further non-critical treatments can be administered. A thorough examination or treatment of fractures can wait until the opossum is stable or you may send an already compromised opossum over the edge and it may die.
Once the opossum is stable, give a complete examination from head to toe. Fractures can heal remarkably well. A fractured jaw may or may not require wiring, depending on the location of the fracture and severity of the injury. In some opossums, feeding a liquified gruel will allow the opossum to lap and permit the jaw to heal on its own. Other opossums may require tube feedings. Do not offer solid food for at least three weeks.
Head trauma is common and time will show if the opossum has a chance of recovering. Most opossums suffering from head trauma will bleed from the nose, mouth or ears. Noisy breathing is common in the hit by car opossum as a result of damage to the turbinate (fine, bony network in the nose). If the opossum will tolerate handling, blood should be gently cleaned from the nose and mouth using long cotton tipped swabs dipped in warm water. The opossum may have difficulty closing its mouth, swallowing or may be breathing through its mouth. This can cause the tongue to dry out. Lay the opossum on its side with head pointing slightly downward. Gently remove any blood from its mouth as described above. Then place a moistened 4x4 gauze pad on the tongue allowing the water to drain out the other side of the mouth. You can also flush the tongue with a small amount of water in a syringe. Moisten as needed. If the opossum will tolerate it, gently clean blood from the opossum’s face before it dries. Dried blood can be difficult to remove and can be uncomfortable to the opossum.
Prolapsed eyes are common. If an eye is prolapsed, an enucleation should be performed. It is possible that the opossum may still be releasable, provided trauma has not caused blindness in the other eye. Head trauma frequently results in blindness. Evaluate on an individual basis. If both eyes are prolapsed or the opossum is blind, the opossum should be euthanized. If appropriate, it may be placed in a suitable facility for public education. Contact O.S.U.S. for captive blind opossum habitat enrichment information.
Broken teeth are also common. Removing broken teeth is a judgment call. Normally, if the canine teeth are fractured and the pulp chamber is exposed, removal is recommended to prevent a systemic infection. Application of a small amount of Sensodyne toothpaste to the tooth has been reported to provide some temporary relief until the tooth can be extracted. However, this claim has not been tested.
Open-mouthed breathing may result in bloat. If the abdomen is enlarged, taught, and uncomfortable, seek veterinary assistance.
Antibiotics will most likely be required. Amoxi drops (50 mg/ml strength) can be dosed at 11-22 mg/kg q12h PO and Baytril (22.7 mg/ml strength) dosed at 2.5-5 mg/kg q12-24h PO or SQ. See Medicating The Opossum section (pg. 43). The opossum will be experiencing pain. Please consult veterinarian for analgesics. Consider that if the injury the opossum is experiencing would be painful for you, it is also painful for the opossum.
2. Shock
There are various types of shock but the two you will most likely encounter are hypovolemic shock caused by a significant loss of blood or septic shock caused by an overwhelming systemic infection. You should be able to recognize signs of shock and know when to seek veterinary assistance.
Common signs of shock include:
• Tachycardia (increased heart rate) or bradycardia (reduced heart rate)
• Tachypnea (increased respiratory rate)
• Pale or white mucous membranes
• Prolonged capillary refill time
• Poor peripheral pulses
• Low blood pressure
• Cold extremities
• Mental depression or non-responsive
Seek immediate veterinary assistance and advice before administering medications. IV fluid therapy to help increase blood pressure and improve tissue perfusion, broad-spectrum antibiotics (for septic shock), and other supportive care may be required. Immediate treatment is necessary because shock affects a variety of systems in the body including the heart, liver and kidneys and can result in death.
It is important to keep the opossum as stress free as possible. Opossums have a low normal body temperature, 94-97° F. Shock lowers the body temperature even more and can therefore be a serious problem in the opossum. Provide warmth by wrapping loosely in warm towels, placing it on a towel-covered heating pad or under a heat lamp. If the opossum is unable to move itself, it will need to be repositioned occasionally by switching sides closest to the heat source. Make sure the heat source does not get too hot and burn the opossum.
3. Attacked By Another Animal
Other animals frequently attack opossums. Attacks by dogs are common. While cats in general do not pose a threat to adult opossums, they frequently harm or kill young opossums. Cat saliva is high in bacteria and can cause severe infections requiring antibiotics.
If the opossum is in shock, treat for shock as described above. Do not treat wounds until the opossum’s overall condition is stable. Treating an animal in shock can send it over the edge. Wait until it is stable before treating any nonlife threatening wounds.
The sound of the hair clippers may frighten the opossum so anesthesia may be required for extensive clipping. Before clipping, cover the open wound with moistened gauze to prevent fur from contaminating the wound site. Clip at least a 1inch margin around the wound. If the opossum is a female with young, DO NOT OVERCLIP. The young must be able to hold onto the fur on her back or they will fall off and become “orphans”. An opossum’s hair regrowth is a slow process.
Gently clean with Chlorhexidine, Nolvasan (diluted to a pale, sky blue color), Betadine (dilute with lukewarm water until it is the color of iced tea), or other disinfectant. A curved tip syringe can be used to clean the puncture site. Any dead tissue will need to be removed. Debride dead skin around wound edges. Apply topical antibiotic such as Silvadene. For large wounds and wounds with a deep pocket, a surgical drain may need to be placed. Keep the wound clean. Gently twist the drain two times a day to prevent it from sticking to the animal. Remove the drain in 2-4 days. Sutures can usually be removed in 10-14 days.
4. Trap Injuries
Opossums caught in traps often have a characteristic “ring-around-the-nose” injury. The area around the nose may be red, bloody and raw. In addition, the jaw or teeth may be fractured as the opossum attempts to free itself from the trap. Opossums may tear toenails and bleed profusely. The opossum may be suffering from heatstroke especially if the trap is in the sunlight. It will most likely be frightened and stressed. Remove the opossum from the trap and place in a covered carrier. Clean the wounds, carefully examine the mouth for fractures, and stop the toenails from bleeding by dipping in Kwik Stop, flour or some other blood clotting powder, or by bandaging lightly.
5. Tail Injuries
Tail infections, cuts and sores can occur. The female often nips the tip of the male opossum’s tail after mating. It may become sore, inflamed and infected. An opossum will sometimes chew its own tail or digits for many reasons, including pain due to an infection. Treat the tail by soaking in a lukewarm, diluted disinfectant solution such as Nolvasan diluted with water until it is a pale sky blue color. Place the tail (or injured digit) in a baggie or tub filled with the solution. Let it soak 5-10 minutes. Rinse off. Pat dry. An antibiotic cream or ointment such as Silvadene and a light bandage can be applied. Neo-predef powder can also be applied. It has topical antibiotic and pain relieving properties.
If the opossum chews the tail, protect it by taping a syringe case over the end. The syringe cases come in several sizes and are often discarded by veterinarians. Punch holes in the case with a nail to allow airflow and assist healing. There are bitter-tasting solutions such as Bitter Apple that can be applied to prevent an animal from licking or biting the injury. However, some of these solutions can sting raw, irritated skin. Apply around the wound, not directly on the wound. If the bone is exposed, take the opossum to the veterinarian as soon as possible. Cover exposed bone to protect it from the environment until you can get veterinary assistance. The bone fragment may have to be removed and the tail tip sutured over the bone. Antibiotics and analgesics most likely will be required. A tail bone tip left exposed will resort in a systemic infection.
An opossum relies on the use of its tail for balance, support and as an aid in climbing. Occasionally, an opossum will come in with a missing tail. Sometimes littermates will cannibalize. Other times the loss is caused by a bite from a predator or even a deliberate mutilation by a human. Whatever the case, the question about releasability comes into play. This is a judgment call. Many opossums have been successfully released with a partial or complete tail amputation. Consider each opossum on a case-by-case basis. . Their gait will be different when traversing a narrow ledge to compensate for the lost balancing tail.
6. Gunshot Wounds
Most often, these wounds are deadly or result in significant damage. Other times the bullets or BB pellets penetrate the skin but do not cause significant damage and may or may not require surgical removal. Until veterinary assistance can be obtained try to stop the bleeding by applying a pressure bandage. Do not try to remove the bullet yourself. Take the opossum to the veterinarian for an X-ray and treatment.
7. Burns
If severe, take the opossum to a veterinarian as soon as possible. If not severe, clean the area and apply Nitrofurazone or see Sweet Wound Care handout enclosed. Apply a bandage if needed. Check site and change bandage every 1-2 days. Fluid therapy and antibiotics may be needed.
8. Wound Care and Maggots
First, stabilize an opossum by treating for shock. Handling must be minimized with an animal in shock or it can send it “over the edge” and it can die. Always stabilize before treating anything other than a life-threatening injury. Once stable, thoroughly clean the wound by flushing with diluted Nolvasan, Chlorhexidine, Betadine or similar antiseptic solution. Sugar or honey can also be used (see enclosed Sweet Wound Care handout). Clip and clean wounds as described above under the Attacked By Another Animal Section (.3). Most wounds are contaminated. Small, clean wounds less than 4-6 hours old can be closed with 1-2 drops of Vetbond tissue adhesive. Larger wounds may require sutures, skin staples and a drain. Tegaderm, a breathable, waterproof dressing or non-stick Telfa pads may be applied to most wounds. Most opossums will not tolerate plastic Elizabethan collars (E-collars) or other device placed around the head/neck. Some opossums tolerate the flexible collars obtained at some veterinary hospitals.
Maggot-infested wounds are common. Each maggot must be removed by gently scrubbing, flushing, or picking with tweezers. The wound site can be flushed with diluted Nolvasan or other disinfectant. Recheck the wound site repeatedly over the next few days for the presence and removal of missed maggots. Remove the yellow-white colored fly eggs as well with a comb or toothbrush.
If a wound does not clot, ingestion of rat poison may be a possibility. If needed, treat by following the protocol in the Poison section (.12) following or as directed by a veterinarian.
9. Infections
Many injured opossums suffer from life-threatening infections. Antibiotics are required in most cases. Your vet should determine the choice of antibiotic. The route of administration (PO, SQ, IM, IV) varies and usually depends on your preference. Only the veterinarian, not the rehabilitator, should administer IV medications. Ask the veterinarian if the medication should be given with or without food, whether the tablet can be crushed or divided, how often to administer, for how long, whether refrigeration is required, possible side effects, etc. Unless directed otherwise, use the antibiotic until it is gone. If the opossum does not show any improvement within a few days, consult the veterinarian. Fungal, viral and parasitic infections occur as well.
Amoxi drops and Baytril are commonly given to opossums with bacterial infections. Ideally, a culture and sensitivity test should be performed to determine the organism involved and to determine the best antibiotic to use before starting.
Pouch Infections: These are common in adult, female opossums. Infections are often recognized by the presence of an orange to brown colored, foul-smelling discharge. Treat by gently cleaning the pouch with diluted Nolvasan or other disinfectant. Pat dry completely. Clean daily. Apply a topical antibiotic powder or spray such as Neo-predef powder or Gentocin topical spray. Oral antibiotics are sometimes needed.
“Crispy Ear” (Dermal Septic Necrosis or DSM) This is a serious, systemic infection that usually makes itself known by a brown, crispy look to the ear tips or the tip of the tail, advancing to turning black and dying off. Not all opossums with these signs have “Crispy Ear” so do not automatically place the opossum on antibiotics if they are not needed. It could be a topical infection, possibly fungal. A piece of the ear can be clipped for a fungal check. If the opossum has a high WBC count, it probably has “Crispy Ear” and should be treated aggressively with antibiotics. If you suspect “Crispy Ear,” please consult a veterinarian immediately for a proper diagnosis and treatment. Visit our website under ‘Crispy Ear’
10. Fractures
Whether hit by a car, attacked by a dog, fell out of a tree, etc. opossums are routinely treated for fractured bones. Opossums tolerate bandages, splints and pins. Even serious fractures may heal remarkably well.
A simple, closed fracture with no bone protruding from skin can be stabilized by first wrapping the fractured bone with a gauze wrap. Make sure it is not too tight. Then apply a splint immobilizing the joint both above and below the fracture. Coffee stirrers, popsicle sticks, tongue depressors and paper clips can often be used as splints. Next, wrap with gauze or tape to hold splint in place. Then wrap with cotton wrap and apply a layer of vet wrap. Tape the top and bottom portions to the animal’s hair to hold the bandage in place. Applying tape “stirrups” first will hold the bandage in place even better. Check daily to make sure it is not too tight and cutting off circulation.
This wrap may be enough to assist in the healing of the fracture. If you are inexperienced or unsure about your bandaging technique, ask a veterinarian to evaluate the bandage. Bandages may need to be modified depending on the location. An open fracture with exposed bone is more serious and a veterinarian evaluation is advised. The opossum will be experiencing pain. Please consult your veterinarian for analgesics.
11. Found in Garage
Opossums are routinely rescued from garages. Opossums are attracted to the availability of cat or dog food often found in a garage as well as a nice shelter. Several factors need to be considered in dealing with a garage rescue. A garage can get extremely hot in the summer. Evaluate the opossum for the possibility of heat stroke. Signs of overheating or heat stroke include open-mouth breathing, rapid and shallow breathing, panting and pale mucous membranes due to low oxygen levels. The opossum may excessively drool and lick its tail vigorously and continuously in an effort to cool itself. The body temperature will be elevated and it will feel warm.
Treat immediately by following the guidelines listed under Hyperthermia (.14) following. Garages also pose a risk of poisoning. Antifreeze and rat poison are commonly found in garages. See Poison section (.12) below. Ask the finder what the opossum may have been exposed to and treat accordingly.
12. Poison/Toxin Exposure
If poison is suspected determine what the poison is and the ingredient(s). Treat any suspected poisonings immediately. For treatment options, contact your veterinarian or Poison Control. If available, take a sample of the suspected poison and/or the bag the product came in to the veterinarian. Treatments may include administration of medications to absorb toxins in the stomach, an antidote, and supportive care.
Phone numbers to call for advice about poisons:
American Association of Poison Control Centers: (800) 222-1222
ASPCA Animal Poison Control 24-Hour Emergency Information: (888) 426-4435
Animal Poison Hotline: (888) 232-8870
Note: There will be a charge for the calls to the ASPCA and the Animal Poison Hotline.
Have information available such as the name of the product, ingredients, how much may have been ingested, when ingested, what signs are exhibited by the animal, etc. Obtain the package label if possible.
Rat poison (anticoagulant rodenticide aka AR) and antifreeze poison are common. If you see bruising/bleeding (typically appearing as dark rings in the tail and dark toenail tips) and suspect exposure to rat poison then administer Toxiban® (activated charcoal) per container instructions and follow up with Vitamin K at 2.5 mg/kg PO or SQ daily for 30 days or treat per the veterinarian’s instructions. Vitamin K comes in 2 forms, oral capsules (25 mg) and injectable (10 mg/ml). The capsules are expensive but giving daily injections into the muscle can be painful. Some prefer to give Vitamin K by injection for 2-3 days SQ or IM in multiple sites on the body followed by oral administration. Blood which fails to clot can be a sign of rat poison ingestion.
[pic]
(Note the black nail tips, black congealed blood in tail appearing as stripes and sunken eyes, indicating dehydration. All symptoms of anticoagulant rodenticide poisoning.).
13. Anemia
Symptoms of anemia include pale gums, weakness and an increased respiratory rate. Anemia can be caused by a heavy parasite load, blood loss, toxin, chronic disease process, etc. It is important to determine and treat the underlying cause. Pet-Tinic can be offered orally at 0.25 ml/kg q12-24 hours. Ensure nutritional shake (for humans) can be administered as a quick way to get nutrients in the opossum, especially if there’s a jaw or tooth injury that won’t allow the opossum to chew. Bioplasma can be supplemented to replace depleted cell salts, stimulating the natural healing process. If anemia persists or worsens, contact a veterinarian. Pay attention to an opossum with a heavy flea-load. Remove fleas immediately. See External Parasites section (16) below. Flea anemia can take 4-6 weeks for the animal to overcome and restore blood loss.
14. Hypothermia
Exposure to the cold can result in hypothermia. Young infants separated from their mothers are especially at risk since they are unable to thermoregulate. Warm the opossum by gently wrapping it in warmed towels, or placing it on a towel-covered heating pad set on low. Other heating devices such as a hot water bottle, latex glove filled with warm water, etc. will work too. Monitor the heat to make sure the opossum does not get too hot. Make sure you buy a heating pad that provides continual heat and doesn’t have an automatic timed shutoff feature.
Further treatment may be needed, especially if the opossum has suffered frostbite. Depending where you are located this may or may not be a problem. The hairless ears, tail and hands/feet of the opossum are susceptible to frostbite. Distal portions of the tail, digits and ear tips may be missing. The frostbitten areas can be very painful. Be gentle when treating. Gently apply Preparation H or Panalog to the affected areas. Do not rub the ointment or cream into the affected area. Keep the opossum warm by wrapping in warmed towels.
15. Hyperthermia
On the opposite extreme, opossums that have been locked in a hot garage or left all day in a trap or trash may suffer from hyperthermia or heat exhaustion. The opossum can die from heat stroke. Watch for signs of dehydration, overheating or heat stroke. Some signs of overheating or heat stroke include “panting”, rapid and shallow breathing, pale mucous membranes due to low oxygen levels, etc. The opossum may excessively drool and lick its tail in an effort to cool itself. The body temperature will be elevated and it will feel warm.
Until veterinary help can be obtained, or if you are unable to get help, try the following. Get the opossum into a cool place and cool it by squirting its feet and tail with rubbing alcohol.
Don’t get the rubbing alcohol in open wounds or near the eyes, mouth or genital area, it will burn. If you don’t have rubbing alcohol, use cool water. You can cool the opossum by applying a cool, wet towel to its head and body. Do not to immerse the opossum in ice cold water since sudden, overcooling can lead to shock. If you are going to immerse the opossum, use cool, not cold water. If it is able to drink, offer an oral rehydrating solution or water. Subcutaneous or IV fluids may be needed. In severe, life threatening cases a cool-lukewarm water enema can be given. However, this should only be done by a veterinarian or an experienced rehabilitator. It is important to see a veterinarian because further treatments such as fluids, drugs, or an enema may be required in order to save the opossum’s life.
16. External Parasites (Ectoparasites)
Fleas: Opossums are usually brought to the rehabilitators covered in fleas. It is important to remove the fleas and other ectoparasites such as ticks as soon as possible or anemia can occur. A flea infestation can be especially deadly to young opossums. There are several ways to remove fleas. Again, if the animal is in shock, caution must be taken. Do not bathe an opossum in shock. One of the best ways to remove fleas is to place a light colored towel in the dryer or microwave and heat until warm. Wrap the warm towel around the opossum. The fleas will jump off the opossum and onto the warm towel. Immediately submerge the flea-ridden towel into a pre-filled washer or plastic bag to keep them from jumping onto you or into the room. Apply additional warm towels as needed. Fleas and ticks can also be removed by hand using fingers, flea comb, tweezers, etc. There are several commercial flea and tick products available. Feline Advantage II has been used successfully to kill fleas on opossums as small as 30g (haven’t had fleas on any smaller opossums to test) as have pyrethrin-based flea powders. See Controlling Fleas attachment to this manual.
Ticks: Check the entire body for ticks including the inside of the ears. Ticks can be removed by grasping the head of the tick, which will be partially submerged beneath the skin, with a pair of tweezers as close to the opossum’s skin as possible and pulling it out. Make sure the entire tick is removed. Clean area with rubbing alcohol. Kill and dispose of ticks immediately. Capstar® and Advantage® also have flea and tick removers for cats that can be used on opossums.
Fly strike: Fly eggs are also commonly found on opossums. Remove the yellow-white fly eggs with a flea comb, toothbrush or tweezers. Check the entire body including inside the mouth and ears. The opossum can be lightly dusted with corn meal and then combed. The corn meal will dry the eggs and prevent them from hatching. Re-check at least twice daily for any missed fly eggs.
Ants: Orphaned opossums may be covered in ants. Remove ants by hand or by gently rubbing the body with a towel.
17. Internal Parasites (Endoparasites)
Opossums which have been in the environment usually come in heavily parasitized. A heavy parasitic load can affect the health and growth of an opossum if they have the added stresses of injury, are a nursing mother and/or in captivity. They should be routinely dewormed for both the protection of the rehabilitators and to help an already-compromised opossum recover. There are many zoonotic diseases associated with parasites. Deworming opossums under 200 grams is usually not recommended.
Caution: Please do not administer these drugs or any other unless you are working under veterinary supervision, know what you are doing, and able to calculate dosages correctly. If you need help dosing, accidentally overdose, or have any other concerns then please contact an experienced caregiver or your veterinarian. A small calculation error can be fatal. Some drugs are administered in very small quantities. A decimal point error can result in an overdose, killing the opossum. You must be very careful. If you do not know how to calculate dosages, seek help.
Deworming Chart
|Medication |Strength |Dosage |Notes |
|Pyrantel Pamoate |50 mg/ml |5-10 mg/kg |Safe for young, pregnant, or lactating animals |
|(Strongid T®, Nemex®) | |PO, once |Palatable |
| | |Repeat in 14 days |Shake before using |
|Fenbendazole * |10% (100mg/g) |50 mg/kg PO q24h x 3 days |Apple-cinnamon flavored Safe-Guard is very |
|(Panacur®, |100 mg/ml |Repeat in 14 days |palatable |
|Safe-Guard®) | |See sample dosage chart |*Preferred dewormer for GI worms and lungworms |
| | |below | |
|Ivermectin |Injectable 1% |0.20 mg/kg |Caution: Very easy to miscalculate and |
|(Ivomec®) |(10 mg/ml) |PO, SQ once |overdose. Only a small amount needed. |
| |Paste 1.87% |Repeat in 14 days |Can be diluted to 1 mg/ml for PO use in small |
| | | |opossums. Mix 0.1 ml Ivermectin with 0.9 ml |
| | | |propylene glycol. Refrigerate. |
| | | |Good for migrating forms |
| | | |Do not administer to head trauma patients |
|Metronidazole |250 mg, 500 mg tablets |20 mg/kg PO q12h x 3 days |Antiprotozoal agent |
|(Flagyl®) |50 mg/ml | |Treats Giardia |
|Levamisole*** |136 mg/ml |10 mg/kg PO once |***NOTE: Levamisole is NOT recommended for use |
| | |6 mg/kg SQ once. |in the opossum. There are anecdotal reports |
| | |May repeat in 3-4 weeks |about sudden death in opossums and other |
| | | |serious adverse effects post-administration. |
| | | |Safer alternatives are available. We have |
| | | |included Levamisole in the above table for your|
| | | |reference. Use caution if administering! |
Sample Panacur® Dosage Chart
|Weight |Panacur Dose |
| |(50 mg/kg) |
|100 grams |3.5 ounces |0.05 ml |
|300 grams |10.5 ounces |0.15 ml |
|500 grams |17.5 ounces |0.25 ml |
|1 kilogram |2.2 pounds |0.50 ml |
|2.5 kilograms |5.5 pounds |1.0 ml |
|5.5 kilograms |12 pounds |3.0 ml |
18. Constipation
Constipation does not seem to be a major problem in the opossum. A heavy parasite infestation is usually the cause. Other causes include dehydration, dietary, obstruction, neurological disorder, and lack of exercise, among others. Whatever the reason, if left untreated, the opossum may develop a prolapsed rectum. Treat first by deworming. Sometimes an opossum can be heavily parasitized and require repeat administration of dewormers or administration of more than one type of dewormer. Increase dietary fiber by adding Metamucil® (1/2-2 teaspoons/meal) or canned pumpkin (NOT pumpkin pie filling) -1 tablespoon/meal) to the diet. Ensure proper hydration. Fluid therapy may be needed. Try increasing oral liquids first. Encourage the opossum to hydrate by moistening the food with water or offering flavored liquids (small amount of fruit juice, low-sodium chicken broth, tuna juice, etc. added to water). Encourage exercise by providing the opossum with sufficient space to move or place an exercise wheel in the enclosure (plans available on our web site). Placing the opossum in a lukewarm water bath may also help stimulate the opossum to defecate (be prepared to dispose of ouput). Take the opossum to a veterinarian if no improvement within 2 days or opossum exhibits severe straining or a rectal prolapse develops.
19. Rectal Prolapse
A rectal prolapse is a condition in which the rectum protrudes out through the anus. The tissue may appear red, swollen and blood may be present. It may protrude a fraction of an inch or several inches. If not corrected, the prolapsed tissue can become infected, necrotic (tissue death) and the opossum can die. Intestinal parasites are one of the most common causes. Other causes include but are not limited to; constipation, inflammatory bowel disease, straining, ingestion of a foreign body, poor nutrition, weak pelvic muscles, a congenital disorder, neurological problem and cancer.
Treatment options depend on the severity of the protrusion and treating the underlying cause(s). Antibiotics are often needed. If only a small amount is protruding (about 1-3 mm) then liberal topical application of Preparation H® may help reduce the swelling. Applying granulated sugar to the prolapsed tissue helps pull fluid out allowing the tissue to shrink so that it may be more easily reinserted.
To reinsert the tissue, slowly and gently push the tissue back through the anus. If the tissue does not stay in place, if it protrudes more than 3 mm, or if constipation, pain, swelling, or blood are present, seek immediate veterinary care. Meanwhile, keep the tissue moist with Preparation H® until it can be reinserted.
The veterinarian or skilled rehabilitator under veterinary supervision may have to reinsert the tissue and apply sutures (purse string) around the rectum to hold it in place. Observe carefully to make sure the animal is able to defecate. If the purse string is too tight, the opossum will not be able to pass stools. If this happens, carefully cut the suture with suture removers or scissors. Contact the veterinarian for suture replacement. Often,the purse string procedure, along with identifying and treating the underlying cause will fix the rectal prolapse. If not, surgery (colopexy) may be an option.
[pic]
Rectal prolapse
20. Diarrhea
Diarrhea is often seen in wild opossums brought to the rehabilitation center. Captivity can be stressful, resulting in diarrhea. If severe, diarrhea will cause life-threatening dehydration.
First, minimize stress by placing the animal in a quiet, dark location. Deworm. Check diet to determine if the diarrhea could be diet-related (for example spoiled food, diet changes). Diarrhea can be treated with a number of medications including Kaopectate® given orally at a dosage of 1-2 ml/kg 3 - 4 times a day or as needed until stools become firm. Fluids may be required to prevent dehydration. If diarrhea is severe or if it persists, consult a veterinarian.
Antibiotic side effects frequently cause diarrhea.
[pic]
Normal opossum feces consistency
21. Dehydration
Assume all opossums coming into your care will have some degree of dehydration. Dehydration can be life threatening. The goal of fluid therapy is to maintain homeostasis by replacing loss of fluid and electrolytes. Fluids and electrolytes are lost daily due to normal body metabolism. Additional losses occur during a disease process.
Estimating Hydration Status
< 5 % Dehydration = Normal, no clinical signs of dehydration, skin snaps back into
place immediately after pinching or “tenting”
5 – 7 % Dehydration = Mild, mucous membranes are slightly tacky, when mucous
membranes pressed with finger it takes > 2 seconds to return
to normal pink color (capillary refill time), skin tenting = 2-5
seconds
8 – 9 % Dehydration = Moderate, tacky mucous membranes, prolonged capillary refill
time = 3 seconds, skin tenting returns to normal in 2-5 seconds,
sunken eyes, lethargic, weak pulse
10+ % Dehydration = Severe, skin tent stands in place, capillary refill time > 4
seconds, signs of shock, usually fatal
Fluid Administration
Oral: This should be the first route of choice provided the animal is not severely dehydrated, is responsive, not in shock, no seizure activity, and has a functional gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Rehydrating solutions include LRS, Normasol, Pedialyte or Gatorade diluted 1:1 with water. If none are available, an emergency rehydrating solution can be made by mixing 1 tsp. salt with 3 tsp. sugar. Boil the mixture for 5 minutes then cool to room temperature. Use within 48 hours. Tap water can be offered via syringe.
Injectable (SQ, IV): Administer by injection if not able to give orally due to non-functional GI tract, severely dehydrated, etc. Do not administer Pedialyte or Gatorade by injection. These are for oral use only. Give SQ fluids if the animal cannot receive oral fluids, has good peripheral circulation and is not in shock. IV is the recommended route for animals in shock, severely dehydrated, have poor peripheral circulation, severe blood loss, emaciation or acute trauma. However, only the veterinarian, and not the rehabilitator, should administer anything IV. Administer room temperature or lukewarm fluids for 1-4 days and reassess fluid needs daily.
Fluid Therapy Chart:
This chart is meant for general guidelines only. Additional fluids may be needed depending on the severity of the dehydration and whether there are significant ongoing losses (vomit, diarrhea, blood loss).
* The following volumes are daily totals.
Administer 1/3 of the amount listed in chart 3 times daily.
|Weight |Day 1 * |Day 2 * |Day 3 * |Day 4 * |
|(grams) |(ml) |(ml) |(ml) |(ml) |
|10 |1 |0.7 |0.7 |0.5 |
|20 |2 |1.5 |1.5 |1 |
|30 |3 |2 |2 |1.5 |
|40 |4 |3 |3 |2 |
|50 |5 |4 |4 |2.5 |
|60 |6 |4.5 |4.5 |3 |
|70 |7 |5 |5 |3.5 |
|80 |8 |6 |6 |4 |
|90 |9 |7 |7 |4.5 |
|100 |10 |7.5 |7.5 |5 |
|200 |20 |15 |15 |10 |
|300 |30 |22 |22 |15 |
|400 |40 |30 |30 |20 |
|500 |50 |37 |37 |25 |
|600 |60 |45 |45 |30 |
|700 |70 |52 |52 |35 |
|800 |80 |60 |60 |40 |
|900 |90 |67 |67 |45 |
|1 kg |100 |75 |75 |50 |
|2 kg |200 |150 |150 |100 |
|3 kg |300 |225 |225 |150 |
|4 kg |400 |300 |300 |200 |
|5 kg |500 |375 |375 |250 |
|6 kg |600 |450 |450 |300 |
|7 kg |700 |525 |525 |350 |
|8 kg |800 |600 |600 |400 |
|9 kg |900 |675 |675 |450 |
|10 kg |1000 |750 |750 |500 |
22. Emaciation
Sick, injured and geriatric opossums often come in suffering from starvation. Resist the temptation to immediately feed a large meal. This can actually kill the opossum! An opossum can use the last of its energy source attempting to breakdown food and digest a meal. Bodily functions must be restored first before introducing food.
First rehydrate. It is important to balance the fluids and electrolytes by administering LRS or another rehydrating solution for 3-4 days. Half LRS and half 5% dextrose can be given IV to a severely emaciated animal. Seek veterinary assistance. Only the veterinarian should administer anything IV. If not possible, administer SQ. Fluids can be administered orally provided the GI tract has not shut down.
Less severe cases can be fed a diet that is easy to utilize. Commercial preparations such as Ensure, Hill’s Prescription Diet a/d and baby food are acceptable. These foods can be tube fed. Attempt tube feeding only if you have been properly trained in this technique. Aspiration pneumonia is a risk of tube feeding so you must feed carefully. Feed small meals often. As a general guideline, the opossum can be fed 3-5% of its body weight at each feeding, 3-4 times per day. Over the next 2-3 days decrease the amount of tube fed mixture and begin introduction of solid food.
Bioplasma is effective on geriatric or failing opossums. Dissolve one tablet in a small amount of water and mix the water into their food for at least a week. Use tweezers to remove a tablet from its container, don’t touch with your fingers. Or you can tap one tablet into the lid of the container, then drop into water and allow to dissolve.
Weigh the opossum daily to monitor progress.
23. Restraint
The opossum can be easily restrained. The method used depends on the animal’s behavior, what part you are interested in examining, personal preference and skill. Heavy gloves are advised. The opossum can be restrained safely by holding the base of the tail with one hand and placing the other hand across the back of the opossum’s neck, use your thumb and forefinger to block the opossum from turning its head. Other means of restraint involve the use of a towel. Wrap the opossum securely in a large towel making sure you know where the biting end is at all times. The opossum’s head can be wrapped in a towel allowing the body to be examined. The goal is to safely examine the opossum without getting bit by a frightened animal. Try to use the minimum amount of restraint possible, as the opossum is likely to fight heavy restraint and become stressed. If unable to manually restrain safely for both the opossum and the restrainer then anesthesia may be required.
Be careful! Remember, veterinarians, health care and animal control officials must report a bite and it will likely result in death of the opossum for a mandatory rabies check. Not all jurisdictions allow quarantine.
24. Blood Collection and IV Catheter Placement
The veterinarian, not the rehabilitator, should obtain blood samples and place IV catheters. The lateral tail vein is a convenient site to take blood as well as to place an IV catheter. The use of a butterfly catheter in blood collection is recommended since the flexible tubing moves as the opossum moves making it easier to obtain a sample. Blood can also be collected from the cephalic vein. Obtaining blood from a clipped toenail is not recommended. This is extremely painful. Opossums do not like to be handled around the head or neck so it is extremely difficult to obtain a blood sample from the jugular vein of an unanesthetised opossum. Please see the included Opossum Normals Sheet for blood values.
25. Anesthesia
Anesthesia will be left to the veterinarian only. Your veterinarian may request an OSUS Veterinary Packet. Isoflurane, an anesthetic inhalant, may be administered to an opossum by placing the opossum in a towel-covered induction chamber in order to minimize stress and handling. Opossums will fight a face mask unless pre-medicated. The veterinarian may also administer injectable anesthetic agents including Ketamine IM or Ketamine with Medetomidine IM and then administered Isoflurane. Keep the opossum warm during anesthesia since anesthesia lowers the body temperature. Place the opossum on a towel-covered heating pad set on low to medium or use another heating element. After anesthesia, keep the opossum warm and monitor its vital signs. Some opossums take a long time to recover so it is recommended they be kept on both heat and oxygen until reviving. Occasionally turn the opossum onto its opposite side while reviving. Lightly pinching the nose helps revive the opossum.
26. Pain Management
While opossums seem to have a high threshold of pain, they do experience pain and pain management should be considered in all injured opossums. Prey animals such as opossums have a defense mechanism not to show pain or weakness in the presence of a predator (you). If a similar injury as the opossum has would hurt if you had it, the opossum will be in pain. Meloxicam, butorphanol and buprenorphine have all been used successfully in the opossum. Consult your veterinarian about analgesics. Some can be administered as an injection (SQ, IV, IM) and others given orally as is or mixed with a flavoring agent and administered as needed.
27. Diet
There are many good and bad diets being offered as “the diet” to feed opossums. As long as the diet is balanced, nutritionally complete, and has the proper Calcium to Phosporous (Ca:P) ratio necessary in order to prevent dietary-induced disorders such as Metabolic Bone Disease (MBD), the diet is sufficient for the opossum. Always have fresh water available. Young opossums frequently defecate in their water bowls, consider a hanging water bottle. Make sure the dispenser is no higher than eye-level for the opossum. Change water as needed, they won’t drink warm water. Contact OSUS for current dietary recommendations for orphans and injured or non-releasable adults.
26. Geriatric
Signs of an aged opossum include broken canines, missing canines, drooping lips and jowls, difficulty walking, old scars and injuries, pale mucous membranes, a patchy or thin coat, etc. These opossums are usually heavily parasitized with both internal and external parasites and must be treated. The older opossum may have other health conditions requiring further evaluation and treatment. If dehydrated, administer LRS SQ or other rehydrating solution. The opossum may be emaciated and have difficulty eating. Consult with a veterinarian and offer soft foods or tube feed if needed. Geriatric opossums frequently suffer from heart failure and may have fluid accumulated in the lungs. Lasix and other heart medications may be beneficial. However, age and prognosis has to be considered in determining whether or not to proceed with treatment or to euthanize. Also see Bioplasma use under #22 above.
27. Deceased Mother With Young
Encourage caller to bring the entire body in for removal of the young. If not possible,
Advise the caller to gently twist the entire body of the young until they can be released from the teats. It is important to remove the dead young from the mother as soon as possible. The infant opossums must be warmed immediately. Have supplies prepared and heating unit warmed ahead of time. Infants can be placed in the Critter Care Waterbator (pg. 46).
Medicating the opossum
Tablets:
1. To pill an opossum: Tilt the opossum’s head upwards, holding the head and upper jaw with one hand behind the upper canine teeth. Do not place fingers in the mouth. With the other hand, try to place the pill as far back as possible in the opossum’s mouth. Shut its mouth and gently stroke throat until it swallows. Again, be very careful not to get bit. Wear gloves if you need to or use a towel. Many opossums object to having their heads held or their mouths shut and will struggle. Watch to make sure the opossum does not spit out the pill. This method is not preferred because it can cause unnecessary stress.
2. A preferred way of “pilling” an opossum is to crush the tablet or open the capsule and mix contents with something the opossum will eat. Mix with a small amount of yogurt (most opossums like low or non-fat berry flavored yogurt) or hide in a homemade “meatball” made with canned cat food.
3. Check with the vet first to make sure the tablet can be crushed or the capsule can be opened without affecting the drug. Also, check to see if any foods or other drugs mixed with the tablet will interfere with the drug’s effectiveness.
4. Take with food or on an empty stomach? This depends on the medication. Some drugs have better absorption when taken on an empty stomach while others should be taken with food to prevent gastrointestinal upset. Read the label that accompanies the drug or ask your veterinarian.
5. Some vitamin and mineral supplements interfere with the maximum absorption of a drug. Keep this in mind when treating an anemic opossum with an iron supplement in addition to a drug. Administer the drug and supplement separately a few hours apart.
Drops:
1. Drops can be given with a syringe, dropper or measured and placed in a saucer by itself or mixed with food such as yogurt. Squirt in the space behind the opossum’s upper canines. DO NOT use a glass dropper. The opossum may bite the glass dropper. You do not want to have to worry about getting shattered glass out of the opossum’s mouth!
2. Shake bottle before administering. Many drops such as Amoxi drops require refrigeration. Always store properly. Follow directions.
Injections:
1. It is often preferable to give injections rather than oral medications to an, especially if the medication is a bad-tasting pill such as Baytril. The opossum will foam and drool a lot if given a bad tasting medication. If this happens, you do not know how much medication it actually took in. A more accurate dose will be attained by injection.
2. When injecting after pricking the opossum’s skin, first draw back slightly on the syringe to make sure you are not in a vein. If you draw back and see blood then the needle is in a vein. Redirect the needle and try again. An anaphylactic reaction may occur if a drug that is supposed to be injected SQ is accidentally injected IV.
3. Should the injection site be cleaned with alcohol before injecting? There are two opinions on this. Some do, some don’t. Some say it is more sterile to clean first while others say wiping the area loosens dirt (many of the wild opossums do come in pretty dirty!) and the dirt may then enter the body along with the needle. If the opossum is noticeably dirty (or oiled) and injecting without cleaning will introduce significant contamination into the injection site, sterilize the injection site. For IV injections, you should always clean first. Check with your veterinarian for his or her preference. Remember, alcohol has a cooling effect so use with caution on an animal that is hypothermic or in shock.
Topical:
1. Wear gloves while applying topical medication. There may be something in certain medications that can be absorbed through your skin.
2. To administer eye drops or eye ointment, hold the eye open and with the dropper or tube parallel to the animal’s head. Place a drop or a small strip (around 1/4 inch) of ointment on the eye. The medication will spread across the eye when the animal blinks. Be very careful not to poke the eye with the dropper or ointment tip. Pay close attention to the animal and what you are doing in case the animal moves suddenly.
Sometimes it is easier to administer eye medication while the opossum is asleep but be extra cautious. The opossum may awaken suddenly and either bite out of fear or make a quick movement and cause you to injure its eye with the dropper or tube. Approach the eye from the back of the opossum, so it doesn’t see it until the last minute. Use the same strategy for dispensing a liquid into an opossum’s mouth, approach from the side and back.
Other Tips:
1. Unless directed otherwise, give medications until gone. Do not stop an antibiotic early because you think the infection is gone. Give the medication for the prescribed amount of time or check with the veterinarian before discontinuing the use of an antibiotic. Failure to do so may result in the creation of drug resistant bacteria.
2. If you have trouble working with a particularly uncooperative opossum then find a second person to act as a gentle restrainer, place a towel over the opossum to help calm and restrain it, or give an injection while the opossum is asleep or eating.
3. Watch for side effects. Monitor bowel movements, appetite, water intake and behavior. Diarrhea or loose stools can signal that the antibiotic dosage is too high.
4. Remind your vet that opossums are meticulous groomers and anything prescribed for topical use that is not absorbed immediately will likely be ingested when they lick themselves. Ask if ingestion of the topical will cause any side-effects or problems.
Critter Care Waterbator
(Water-based Incubator)
Leslie Hall, DVM
[pic]
Hospitals and veterinary clinics have incubators for their critical patients and infants. These lifesaving incubators are expensive but are a must for any wildlife rehabilitator raising young infants, “pinkies”. The young opossums are not able to thermoregulate (maintain their own body temperature) and will die outside of the pouch unless the proper conditions are met. The incubator provides two basic necessities: heat and humidity. Now you can make your own homemade water-based incubator, a “Waterbator”, with these easy-to-follow plans.
Materials Required:
2 plastic containers (Rubbermaid ®) of the same size (I prefer 17L, 18 gallon size)
1 matching lid
1 100 Watt Electronic Aquarium Heater (submersible, adjustable)
1 Heater Guard (100 Watt, 20 cm)
1 Thermometer
Distilled water
Optional Materials:
Hygrometer to detect heat and humidity
Laminated feeding chart and schedule planner
Dry erase pen
Tape or cord
Fun Tak ®
Tools:
Drill with bits
Saw or tin shears (capable of cutting plastic)
Tape (duct or other strong tape)
Paper hole reinforcements
Steps:
1. Decide where to place air holes. I placed holes on the sides, about 2 inches apart, rather than the top. Warm air rises. You want to keep the heat in, not going out the top. Use paper hole reinforcements to mark where you want to drill the holes.
2. Drill holes through center of reinforcement tabs. Smooth rough edges with a fingernail file.
3. Saw through the lid crosswise. This will allow you to open just half the lid when you need to check infants, feed, clean, etc. thereby preventing heat loss.
4. Tape across top of cut area leaving about 1 inch on each side tape-free so lid can bend. Also apply tape loosely on the bottom thus allowing lid to bend back.
5. Place the Heater Guard over the Electronic Aquarium Heater. This is optional but since I am safety conscience I highly recommend this. The protectors are inexpensive. Place the heating element in the bottom of one of the containers securing with suction cup included with the heater.
6. Fill with enough warm water to cover heater. It is best to use distilled water to prevent mineralization on your heater. Place remaining container with lid on top.
7. If you will be moving the incubator, I recommend temporarily attaching the 2 containers together for extra safety. This is important because if you move the incubator and forget to hold from the bottom you will drop the bottom part and spill hot water. Fun Tak® placed between the 2 containers will temporarily hold the containers together. Tape can be used as well. Always hold from the bottom when transporting!
8. Place layers of ravel-free bedding inside the incubator. Place a flexi thermometer next to where infants will be sleeping to monitor the temperature in their immediate vicinity.
9. Place a humidity/heat detector in the incubator and check periodically. Place in location where it can be read without opening incubator. Remember you want to keep heat and humidity in so don’t keep opening incubator. Temperature should be set at 100 degrees F. This will warm the air to 90-95 degrees F and humidity around 75-80%. If you find the humidity is not high enough then secure a plastic bottle filled with warm water and cotton balls to the inside of the incubator away from the infants. I use a plastic pill bottle with holes drilled into the lid to prevent infants from going into the hot water. If too hot, place towel around bottle to prevent infants from coming into contact with it and becoming burned.
10. Optional: Make a daily feeding chart including spaces to mark time to be fed, check that feeding was done, and any additional notes. Laminate. Attach chart to the lid with tape. Attach a dry erase marker to the incubator to prevent pen loss.
11. Note: Accumulated moisture in the Waterbator is NORMAL. If you believe there is too much condensation on the bottom of the lid then you may wipe periodically or drill more holes as long as you remain within the humidity range.
Sample Chart
Copy or create your own to match your needs.
Laminate. Attach to Critter Care Waterbator.
Intake Date: _______ # Opossums: ______
[pic] Daily Feeding and Weight Record
|Feeding |Time |UDA |Date |Weight |
|# | | | | |
|1 | | | | |
|2 | | | | |
|3 | | | | |
|4 | | | | |
|5 | | | | |
|6 | | | | |
|Notes: |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
| |
Contacts [pic]
Web site:
Email: OSUS@
Opossum recorded hotline: (714) 536-3538
Mailing address: O.S.U.S.
P.O. Box 16724
Irvine, CA 92623
Supplies (see complete list on attachment)
|Esbilac® |UPCO: 1- 800-254-8726 |
|Formula | |
|Flea products |Pet Stores |
|Disinfectants | |
|Miscellaneous supplies | |
|Meyenberg® powdered |Jackson-Mitchell, Inc.: 1-(800) 343-1185 |
|goat milk | |
| |Some grocery stores and heath food stores |
|Fox Valley formula |Fox Valley Animal Nutrition, Inc.: 1-(800) 679-4666 |
|O-Ring syringes | |
|Rehydrating solution | |
|Snuggle-Safe | |
|heating pads | |
|hygrometer |
| |161984&sr=8-14&keywords=hygrometer |
|Advantage® |Pet stores |
|Miscellaneous | |
|veterinary supplies | |
|Pedialyte® |Available from grocery stores |
|Purina Kitten Chow® |Grocery stores |
| | |
References and recommended reading
Brown, C.M. (D.V.M.), Willowbrook Wildlife Center Pharmaceutical Index, 3rd edition, Willowbrook Wildlife Foundation, 2000.
Hartman, C.G., Possums, University of Texas Press, Austin, TX, 1952.
Moore, A.T. and Joosten, S. Principles of Wildlife Rehabilitation, The essential guide for novice and experienced rehabilitators, National Wildlife Rehabilitators Association, 1997. *
Dr. Krause, University of Missouri, The Amazing Opossum (80 page PDF download)
White, J. (D.V.M.), Basic Wildlife Rehabilitation 1AB, An IWRC Skills Seminar, 4th edition, International Wildlife Rehabilitation Council, 1993. *
Humane Society of the United States
Nationwide list of wildlife rehabilitators
* Recent updates may be available, contact
National Wildlife Rehabilitators Association
International Wildlife Rehabilitation Council
Attachments included with booklet:
1. Incoming Opossum Caresheet
2. Rehab Report: Examinations
3. Orphan Care Diet Sheet
4. Feeding chart
5. Tube-feeding instructions
6. Development of the Pouch Young
7. NWRA/IWRC Minimum Housing Guidelines for opossums
8. Sweet Wound Care handout
9. Virginia Opossum Medication List
10. Opossum Blood Normals
11. Controlling Fleas
12. Advantage Dose Chart
13. Preparing Opossums For Release
14. Releasable size chart
15. Keeping Opossums Safe from Pools and Spas
16. Orphan Care Product Resources
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