Module 1: Introduction, History, Perspectives and Careers



Module 1: Introduction, History, Perspectives and Careers

• What is the definition of “psychology”?

Psychology = the scientific study of (human) mental processes and behavior

Scientific method = a method of learning about the world through the application of critical thinking & tools such as observation, experimentation & statistical analysis

Since the beginning, man has tried to understand human nature. But only since the 1800’s have we attempted to study human beings scientifically, rather than philosophically. The core of psychology is the use of the scientific method to test ideas. Psychology is a relatively young science.

We’ll talk more about the scientific process next chapter

Mental processes = thoughts, feelings, dreams, etc., that are not directly observable; Behavior = our observable actions

Historically, psychology was initially defined as the “science of mental life” because it studied internal, subjective experience, i.e., our sensations, thoughts, feelings, dreams and beliefs.

In the 1920s and beyond, American psychologists like John Watson redefined psychology as the “science of observable behavior”. They insisted psychology must be based on what can be observed and measured, not conjectured and guessed at.

Today, psychology includes both, thus it the science of mental processes and behavior.

So another definition of psychology might be = the scientific study of how people think, feel and behave.

• Who are some of the important figures and theories in psychology’s early history?

[Charles Darwin: his key contribution was the notion that if we studied the less complex behavior of animals, we could apply what we learned to human behavior. We’ll talk more of Darwin when we study evolutionary psychology.]

Wilhelm Wundt: generally considered the father/founder of psychology because he created the first laboratory for studying humans.

E. B. Titchener: the founder of structuralism, which analyzes the basic elements of thoughts and sensations, i.e., their intensity, clarity and quality in attempt to determine the basic structure of conscious experience

Gestalt psychology: asserts that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts; it emphasizes out tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes, i.e., notes of music into a coherent song

Sigmund Freud: founder of psychoanalysis, one of the first comprehensive theories of personality. He emphasized the importance of unconscious conflicts and drives and early childhood development upon personality. Although many of his ideas are considered outdated, he is still one of the most famous and influential figures in psychology.

William James: the first American psychologist and writer of the first psychology textbook. WJ founded functionalism which emphasizes the functions of consciousness, especially in terms of how it helps us adapt to our environment

John B. Watson: the father of behaviorism, the dominant perspective of the 20th century which believes psychology should only study observable, measurable behavior.

• Who are some of the important early figures in psychology in America?

G. Stanley Hall: a student of Wundt, the first American man to earn a PhD. He founded the APA and was its first president. He also opened the 1st American psychological laboratory

Mary Whiton Calkins: the first woman to complete the requirements for a PhD (though Harvard refused to grant it) and was the APA’s first women president

Margaret Floy Washburn: 1st woman to receive a PhD in psychology & wrote the 1st book on comparative psychology (animals and humans)

Frances Cecil Sumner: the first African-American man to receive a PhD

Inez Beverly Prosser: the 1st African American woman to receive a PhD

• What are the 6 basic present-day approaches or perspectives for psychology?

Psychological perspectives or schools of thought or psychological approaches each refer to a particular collection of ideas that attempt to explain human behavior: biological or biopsychological; cognitive, humanistic, behavioral, sociocultural and psychodynamic

“Cognitive” approach = emphasizes the importance of our mental processes, i.e., our thoughts on human development. The cognitive approach focuses on how we receive, interpret and apply information. It focuses on the internal conversations we have going on in our heads. The basic premise is that what we think greatly influences how feel and how we behave.

“Nice shirt” example.

“Biological” or “biopsychological” approach = views behavior as strongly influenced by physiology, i.e., the biochemistry of our body.

Examples: physiological effects of stress re: CHD or antibody levels; low serotonin levels that correlate with depression, etc.,

“Sociocultural” approach = views behavior as strongly influenced by the rules and expectations of specific social groups or cultures we’re part of. The focus here is on how the particular racial, ethnic and religious groups we belong to shape us; and how our behavior changes depending on the particular social situation we find ourselves in.

Examples: individualism vs. collectivism, bystander effect

“Psychoanalytic” (or psychodynamic) approach = emphasizes the importance of unconscious conflicts and drives and early childhood development upon personality. This is Freud’s theory of personality. He believed we actively repress, i.e., ban from consciousness thoughts and feelings, especially sexual and aggressive ones, that make us uncomfortable. Drives and conflicts of that we bury in our unconsciousness during childhood continue to influence our behavior as adults.

Examples: if you didn’t get enough love as a child up from your mother (or father), you may unconsciously pick uncaring or rejecting partners as an adult, trying to work out this childhood conflict.

“Behavioral” approach = views behavior as the product of learning and associations. Past experiences shape our present behavior, i.e., as we go through life, we notice that certain things we do are rewarded (so we do them more) and certain things we do are punished (so we do them less).

As mentioned before, behaviorism believes psychology should study only observable behavior; unconscious conflicts (or mental processes at all) have no place in behaviorism.

Behaviorists also believe man is essentially shaped by his environment. A famous quote by John B. Watson goes, “Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select—doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief, and yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations and race of his ancestors (Myers p. 234).

Behaviorists do not put much stock in free will. If you can control a person’s environment, i.e., the rewards and punishments they receive, you can control a person’s child’s learning and thus their behavior. Critics of behaviorism say its mechanistic, reducing human beings to little more than robots.

“Humanistic” approach = views people as basically good and capable of helping themselves. All of us our born with an innate tendency towards self-actualization, i.e., to fulfill our potential, to be the best person we can be. If we follow this “inner voice”, we can do anything. If our life is stalled, something is interfering with this natural tendency.

The humanistic approach focuses on conscious awareness (as opposed to psychoanalytic theory) and our freedom to choose (as opposed to behaviorism).

Abraham Maslow & Carl Rogers are two key forerunners of humanistic psychology

• What is “eclecticism”?

“Eclecticism” = the process of making your own system by borrowing from two or more other systems; the basic notion behind eclecticism is that you don’t have to subscribe to one single approach to psychology. You may think one approach best explains a particular situation best; yet opt for a different approach for a different situation. Or you may find that 2 or 3 different approaches all provide valuable insights for a third situation.

• What is “behavioral genetics?

Behavioral genetics = tries to determine to what extent individual differences among human beings are determined by heredity vs. life experience. BG tries to solve the age-old nature-nurture debate, i.e., is our personality determined more by our genetic heredity, which is determined before we’re even born; or by our environment, i.e., what we learn and experience after we’re born.

• What is “evolutionary psychology?

“Evolutionary psychology” = studies the evolution of behavior and the mind using principles of natural selection. Its focus is on universal human traits (as opposed to behavioral genetics which focuses on individual differences).

“Natural selection” = inherited traits that have adaptive value, i.e., superior hearing or smell, result in the organism surviving and thus passing on this new genetic code to succeeding generations; less adaptive mutations don’t make it and aren’t perpetuated.

For example: EP explains male/female mate-selection differences in terms of their evolutionary survival value. Men are attracted to partners based more of physical features (suggesting youth and health, i.e., reproductive potential); women are more interested in a man’s status and influence, his long-term potential as a provider.

EP biggest critiques are: it tends to be non-predictive, that is after the fact theorizing, it reinforces inequitable male/female stereotypes and it minimizes the importance of “nurture” variables re: human behavior (especially gender roles).

• What is “positive psychology”?

Positive psychology = movement that focuses on the study of optimal human functioning; and factors that allow individuals and communities to thrive

Martin Seligman founded PP, believing that psychology had become preoccupied with repairing the worst aspects of life rather than building on positive qualities.

PP differs from humanistic psychology in its focus on research

• What is the difference between “basic” and “applied” research?

Basic research = “pure” science that aims at increasing scientific knowledge (without worrying about the usefulness or applicability of such knowledge). It’s knowledge for knowledge’s sake.

Applied research = scientific study aimed at solving practical problems. Industrial/organizational psychologists who apply psychological principles to the workplace are an example. You could probably say that clinical psychologists and psychotherapists are doing applied research.

• What types of careers are available in psychology?

Clinical or counseling psychologists = diagnose and treat people with psychological problems; C/CP represent over half of all psychologists. They are (obviously) doing applied research.

Academic or experimental psychologists = doing active research to expand knowledge, i.e., basic research; usually done in a university setting.

Examples of A/EP are: biological psychologists who explore the underlying physiology behind our behavior; social psychologists who explore how our social relationships influence our behavior; developmental psychologists = study the human development from birth to death; or cognitive psychologists which study mental processes

Other applied psychologists include: educational psychologists who work inside the school system applying psychological principles to classroom and curriculum development; industrial psychologists who apply PP to businesses to improve working conditions, efficiency, sales, etc.; human factors or engineering psychologists who design instruments and machines for maximum comfort and efficiency; and psychometricians who create and evaluated standardized tests

• Where do most psychologists work?.

28% Universities and colleges; 33% private practice; 16% hospitals or clinics

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