The Flourishing of Poetry in the Tang (618-906) and Song ...



Unit 8: Post-Classical AsiaSui, Tang and Song China and the Mongols, 600-1450Name: ________________________________________________________________Date: ______________________POST-CLASSICAL CHINA: SUI, TANG, AND SONG DYNASTIESDynastyDateContributionsNotable LeadersShang1600BCE-1046BCEAncestor worship, oracle bonesZhou1046BCE-475BCEDivided into many Feudal StatesWarring States Period475BCE-221BCE100 Schools of Thought: Confucianism, Daoism, and LegalismConfucius, LaoTsi, and Han FeiziQin221-206BCETerracotta Army, Great Wall of China, Standardization, Unification under LegalismShi HuangdiHan206BCE-220CEConfucian Bureaucracy, Civil Service Exams, Compass, Paper-MakingHan Wudi3 Warring Kingdoms220-581Horse Collars and StirrupsSui581-618Grand CanalTang618-907Buddhism introduced to China, Tributary System, GunpowderSong960-1279Guns, Paper Money, Block Printing, Foot-bindingYuan (Mongols)1279-1368Mongol rule limited advancementsKublai KhanMing1368-1644Great Wall of China Completed, Maritime Exploration Zheng HeQing (Manchus)1644-1911Manchu rule limited advancement and interactionsEMERGENCE OF THE SUI DYNASTYBy 100 CE, the economy of the cities of Inner Eurasia was becoming dependent on east-west trade along the silk roads. During the powerful Han dynasty, the Chinese controlled much of eastern Inner Eurasia, although trade continued after the Han fell. Thus, the message of Buddhism was first introduced into China by foreign merchants. Soon after, missionaries also carried the teachings of Buddhism to China. The spread of Buddhism deepened when the sutras (Buddhist holy writings) were translated from Sanskrit into Chinese by both Inner Eurasian and Chinese monks. After the fall of the Han dynasty in 220 CE, China disintegrated into the “Period of Division.” The territory was broken into competing states until 589 CE. At one point non-Chinese were able to control parts of northern China. This was due in large part to the invention of the stirrup about 300 CE. This device gave advantage to cavalry in warfare and favored the superior riding ability of northern tribes. During this disunity, Buddhism spread in China and connected Chinese society with societies throughout Asia. At the same time, Daoism emerged as a rival to Buddhism, and Daoists wrote their own sacred texts and instituted monastic rites as a way to become more accepted into higher society and political circles. Finally, in 589 CE, the Sui dynasty defeated the last of the southern dynasties and China was politically reunited. The Sui founder, Wendi, presented himself as a Buddhist king and spread the teachings of Buddhism across China. At the same time, the Sui selected government officials based on their scores on civil service examinations which stressed knowledge of Confucianism. This highly-educated bureaucracy also constructed the Grand Canal, which eased trade and the spread of goods and ideas across China. However, the costly (in terms of money and casualties) battles the Sui waged to regain China’s control over Vietnam and Korea—as the Han had done—caused the Sui dynasty to fall after only two generations. The Tang dynasty, which took over in 618 CE and lasted until 907 CE, continued the civil service examinations. Eventually there were two main examinations: one tested knowledge of the Confucian classics, and the other tested the candidates’ ability to answer political questions and compose poetry. The Tang dynasty rivaled the Han in terms of territorial control, and the Tang elite was perhaps even better educated than the Han elite. For example, the Tang elite continued to prepare for and take the civil service exams as a matter of personal prestige. As we will see in the lessons in this unit, all three belief systems—Daoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism—flourished under the Tang and Song dynasties. What was the historical context surrounding the rise of the Sui, Tang, and Song Dynasties in post-classical Asia?China: An Introduction to the Tang Dynasty (618–906) and Song Dynasty (960–1279)Scholars often refer to the Tang (618–906) and Song (960–1279) dynasties as the "medieval" period of China [because Western Europe was in its Middle Ages, a time often referred to as “medieval”]. The civilizations of the Tang and Song dynasties of China were among the most advanced civilizations in the world at the time. Discoveries in the realms of science, art, philosophy, and technology—combined with a curiosity about the world around them—provided the men and women of this period with a worldview and level of sophistication that in many ways were unrivaled until much later times, even in China itself.When the rulers of the Tang dynasty (618–906) unified China in the early seventh century, the energies and wealth of the nation proved strong enough not only to ensure internal peace for the first time in centuries, but also to expand the Chinese realm to include large portions of neighboring lands such as Korea, Vietnam, northeast, central, and southeast Asia. The Tang became a great empire, the most powerful and influential of its time any place in the world. Flourishing trade and communication transformed China into the cultural center of an international age. Tang cities such as the capital of Chang’an (modern Xi’an), the eastern terminus [end] of the great Silk Road, were global hubs of banking and trade as well as of religious, scholarly, and artistic life. Their inhabitants, from all parts of China and as far away as India and Persia, were sophisticated…. Government was powerful, but not oppressive; education was encouraged, with the accomplished and learned well rewarded. Great wealth was accumulated by a few, but the Tang rulers saw that lands were redistributed, and all had some measure of opportunity for material advancement. This was also a time when many women attained higher status at court, and a greater degree of freedom in society.Source: Asian Art Museum’s Education and Public Programs, “China: An Introduction to the Tang Dynasty (618-906).” . Based on the reading passage to the left, why was Tang China a “cultural center of an international age?”2. Based on the passage and your knowledge of golden ages, why was China during the Tang dynasty a likely place for golden age to occur?NTD on China, Discovering China: The Song Dynasty-3809976200Directions: Preview the questions listed in the right-hand column. Watch the video one time through, without stopping and try to answer the questions.Read the excerpts from the transcript of the video below and answer those questions that you could not by watching the film. TimeExcerpts from Discovering China: The Song DynastyQuestions1:17...the Southern Song period was one of prosperity with flourishing art and culture as well as technological advancements. During the Song, the government started to grant farmers ownership of land which led to a huge increase in rice production. The economy started to change from a purely agricultural economy to a commercial one with peasants selling their surpluses to buy a wide range of goods such as tea, coal, oil, and wine. With the growth in the economy, so grew the population, hitting 100 million by the year 1100. 1. What evidence from this section suggests that the Song dynasty was prosperous?1:50Three of China's four great inventions originate from the Song Dynasty namely, printing, the magnetic compass, and gunpowder. The Song government used its printing techniques for currency production and in the 12th century, became the first government in the world to print paper money. The Song was also the first Chinese dynasty to establish a permanent standing navy to safeguard foreign trade and guard against invasions from the north. The ships used the newly invented compass to navigate and used gunpowder in their weaponry. Gunpowder was first employed in bombs delivered from ships via catapult. The Song used these tactics to successfully defend their territory against a Jurchen invasion on the Yangtze River in the year 1161 AD. A Song force of only three thousand men on 120 ships defeated a Jurchen force of seventy thousand on over six hundred ships…2. Describe how each of the following innovations affected the Song Dynasty.2a. Printing2b. gunpowder2c. the compass3:25Southern Song scholars gave a lot of attention to how Confucian principles could be applied to society rather than to politics. They proposed ways to build a better society focusing on families communities. The most famous of the Song Dynasty scholars was a man named Zhu Xi who would go on to leave a legacy lasting seven hundred years.3. What philosophy was important to Song society?3:57...Song painters also mimicked the mood of the time their artworks. Northern Song painters like Fan Quan painted huge grand landscape scenes. Whereas after the loss of the North, paintings became more intimate, focusing on family or village scenes within the natural environment. Scenes would often be in one corner with a large empty expanse occupying much of the painting.4. Based on this excerpt from the video, describe Song Dynasty painting. left698500The Flourishing of Poetry in the Tang (618-906) and Song (960-1279) DynastiesThe Tang (618-906) and Song (960-1279) dynasties were the golden ages of Chinese classical literature in general, and poetry in particular. Poets of these periods, including Li Bo, Du Fu, and Su Shi, are well known throughout East Asia and are still regarded as revered models for later generations of poets.So why was there a flourishing of literature during the Tang and Song dynasties? The answer to this question lies primarily in the fact that civil service exams instituted during the Tang and Song demanded significant literary skills. Poetry was considered the most refined and elevated means of expression, and was believed to be relevant to many professional arenas, including diplomacy, communication, reasoning, and philosophy. Civil service exams were used to identify capable people for government service and were the most important avenue for people from different social backgrounds to achieve political ambitions and gain prestige. Although the practice of the exams originated in the sixth century, it was not widely established until the Tang and significantly expanded during the Song. During the Tang, exam candidates were tested on poetry composition. This meant that if a person in the Tang wanted to achieve his social ambition or simply live a better life, he needed to be able to write poems. Even though by the middle of the Song, the exam requirement for poetry was replaced by essays, essays demanded no less literary skill. During the Song, along with the increase in the national literacy rate, the government increased exam enrollment among people of all classes. This development in turn prompted more people to acquire literary skills. Besides the great significance and widespread pursuit of the civil service exams, the invention and development of printing in the Tang and Song made the circulation of poems easier than before, and facilitated the study of poetry. All this contributed to the flourishing of poetry during the Tang and Song dynasties. 1. Based on the passage above, what were “civil service exams?” What were they used for during the Tang and Song Dynasties?2. Based on the passage, what tasks did students need to complete on the civil service exams during the Tang and Song dynasties?3. Answer the question that the author poses in the second paragraph of this passage. “So why was there a flourishing of literature during the Tang and Song dynasties?”SPREAD OF CHINESE CONTRIBUTIONS: EAST AND WESTTechnological Advances Move WestThe westward flow of Chinese technology occurred throughout the existence of the Silk Road. Historian Joseph Needham summarized the plethora [large amount] of new inventions that reached Europe between the first and eighteenth centuries, often after a time lapse of several hundred years. There are many other examples not listed in the chart below, such as the use of paper money, the abacus and the use of coal for fuel, but the table gives a good illustration of how technologically advanced the Chinese were from the Europeans.Summary of the Transmission of Mechanical and Other Techniques From China To the WestType of DeviceApproximate Time-lag in CenturiesType of DeviceApproximate Time-lag in CenturiesSilk-Manufacturing Machinery 3-13Deep Drilling for Natural Gas 11Wheelbarrow9-10Gunpowder5-6 4 (for military use)Efficient Harness For Draught-Animals: Breast Strap (Postilion)8Magnetic Compass114 (with needle)2 (for navigation)Crossbow (as an individual arm)13Paper10Printing (Block)64 (Movable Type)1 (Metal Movable Type)Shipbuilding Methods (including watertight compartments, efficient sails, and the rudder)10Notice When you read this chart, what do you notice? Trends? Think What do you think about the information in this chart? What does it mean?Wonder What do you wonder about this chart? What questions do you have?Ideologies Spread EastKorean and Japanese cultures have been greatly influenced by Chinese culture because of their geographic location close to China. Korea acted as a “cultural bridge” between China and Japan. The Japanese and Koreans were in contact with one another early on in the history of their civilizations. They traded and warred against one another. In the process, Koreans introduced Chinese writing and culture, and Buddhism to the Japanese. This exchange sparked Japanese interest in China. In the 600s, a Japanese ruler named Prince Shotoku of the Yamato clan sent nobles to China to study with government officials, scholars, and monks during the Tang Dynasty. Over the next 200 years, more Japanese students, monks, traders, and officials visited the Tang court. The Japanese absorbed Chinese technological innovations, agricultural techniques, philosophies, arts, and architecture, but they did not become Chinese. Instead, the Japanese practiced selective borrowing, by accepting some Chinese practices into their culture and modifying them to meet their needs, but choosing not to adopt other practices like the Chinese civil service system. Question:1. Based on the reading above and graphic to the left, what was the impact of Japan’s location near Korea and China on its history?Mongols Conquer the Post-Classical World! Use the documents provided to complete the chart below.Khanate of the Golden HordeYuan DynastyIl KhanateLocationExpansionPolitical LeadershipSocietyTradeWHO IS GENGHIS KHAN?Bio. Genghis Khan- Origins of a Warrior, Overview from the Genghis Khan Field Museum Watch each the clips on Genghis Khan linked above and take notes on some of the events in his life that led him to become the leader of the largest land empire in history. Then, sketch out a storyboard that depicts the events you learned about from the video clips. Take notes on the events mentioned in the video clips in this space.Storyboard:How did the Mongols gain consolidate, and maintain power in their empires?Read each of the documents below. As you read, annotated each document by:circling words or phrases you are confused by and defining them when you learn their meaningslabeling details that identify methods of gaining power with a “G,” methods of consolidating power with “C,” and methods of maintaining power with an “M.” Research Question: “How did the Mongols gain, consolidate, and maintain power in their empires?” NotesResearch Question: “How did the Mongols gain, consolidate, and maintain power in their empires?” NotesResearch Question: “How did the Mongols gain, consolidate, and maintain power in their empires?” Notes… The Mongols had developed a composite bow made out of sinew and horn and were skilled at shooting it while riding, which gave them the upper hand against ordinary foot soldiers. With a range of more than 350 yards, the bow was superior to the contemporaneous [co-existing] English longbow, whose range was only 250 yards. A wood-and-leather saddle, which was rubbed with sheep’s fat to prevent cracking and shrinkage, allowed the horses to bear the weight of their riders for long periods and also permitted the riders to retain a firm seat. Their saddlebags contained cooking pots, dried meat, yogurt, water bottles, and other essentials for lengthy expeditions. Finally, a sturdy stirrup enabled horsemen to be steadier and thus more accurate in shooting when mounted. A Chinese chronicler recognized the horse’s value to the Mongols, observing that “by nature they [the Mongols] are good at riding and shooting. Therefore they took possession of the world through this advantage of bow and horse.”…Source: Morris Rossabi, “All the Khan’s Horses,” Natural History, October 1994 from NYS Global History and Geography Regents Exam, June 2013.Research Question: “How did the Mongols gain, consolidate, and maintain power in their empires?” NotesIf it is necessary to write to rebels or send messages to them they shall not be intimidated by an excessive display of confidence on our part or by the size of our army, but they shall merely be told: if you submit you will find peace and benevolence [goodness]. But if you continue to resist—what then do we know [about your future]? Only God knows what then shall become of you…” - Genghis KhanSource: Bar Hebraeus, Chronicon Syriacum, qtd. in Spuler 40-41 Research Question: “How did the Mongols gain, consolidate, and maintain power in their empires?” NotesAll Mongols were fighters, but Chinggis [Genghis] made a reorganized army the core of the society and the carrier of many of his reforms. Under him and his successors, the Mongol army had the following characteristics:All males 15-70 served in the army, all as cavalry. The army’s 95 units of 10,000 soldiers were subdivided into units of 1,000, 100, and 10.Soldiers were promoted based on merit [their ability] not based on their family’s status in society. Members of different tribes were mixed together in units of every size to ensure loyalty to the army above loyalty to the tribe. Allies and levies [military men] from conquered territories were also integrated into the fighting force, the latter usually being placed in the front ranks. Absolute obedience to orders from superiors was enforced.Officers had tight control over their troops’ actions (plunder only with permission, no one allowed to transfer out of their unit).No one in the army was paid, though all shared to varying degrees in the booty. Research Question: “How did the Mongols gain, consolidate, and maintain power in their empires?” Notes. . .Kublai Khan [ruler of the Yuan Dynasty, the Mongol run empire in China] was a vigorous and capable ruler. He carried on large warlike hunts to show that he kept Mongol tradition, but he also showed some appreciation for Chinese culture. He acted to restore some of the devastation in North China. He began a vast renovation of the Grand Canal, which was so important to the wealth and unity of the country. He directed the building of water-control projects, such as dams and dikes, along the Yellow River. . . .Research Question: “How did the Mongols gain, consolidate, and maintain power in their empires?” Notes?????Once conquest was completed, the Mongols were not oppressive rulers. Often, they allowed conquered people to live much as they had before-as long as they regularly paid tribute [a tax paid to prevent invasion and ensure protection] to the Mongols. ?????Genghis Khan had set an example for his successors by ruling conquered lands with toleration and justice. Although the Mongol warrior had no use for city life, he respected scholars, artists, and artisans. he listened to the ideas of Confucians, Buddhists, Christians, Muslims, Jews, and Zoroastrians. Research Question: “How did the Mongols gain, consolidate, and maintain power in their empires?” NotesAn Excerpt from The Travels of Marco PoloNow you must know that from this city of Cambaluc proceed many roads and highways leading to a variety of provinces… messengers of the Emperor in travelling from Cambaluc, be the road whichsoever they will, find at every twenty-five miles of the journey a station which they call Yamb, or, as we should say, the “Horse–Post-House.”You must know that by the Great Kaan’s orders there has been established between those post-houses, at every interval of three miles, a little fort with some forty houses round about it, in which dwell the people who act as the Emperor’s foot-runners. Every one of those runners wears a great wide belt, set all over with bells, so that as they run the three miles from post to post their bells are heard jingling a long way off. And thus on reaching the post the runner finds another man similarly equipt, and all ready to take his place, who instantly takes over whatsoever he has in charge, and with it receives a slip of paper from the clerk, who is always at hand for the purpose; and so the new man sets off and runs his three miles. At the next station he finds his relief ready in like manner; and so the post proceeds, with a change at every three miles. And in this way the Emperor, who has an immense number of these runners, receives despatches with news from places ten days’ journey off in one day and night; or, if need be, news from a hundred days off in ten days and nights; and that is no small matter!Moreover, there are also at those stations other men equipt similarly with girdles hung with bells, who are employed for expresses when there is a call for great haste in sending despatches to any governor of a province, or to give news when any Baron has revolted, or in other such emergencies; and these men travel a good two hundred or two hundred and fifty miles in the day, and as much in the night. I’ll tell you how it stands. They take a horse from those at the station which are standing ready saddled, all fresh and in wind, and mount and go at full speed, as hard as they can ride in fact. And when those at the next post hear the bells they get ready another horse and a man equipt in the same way, and he takes over the letter or whatever it be, and is off full-speed to the third station, where again a fresh horse is found all ready, and so the despatch speeds along from post to post, always at full gallop, with regular change of horses. And the speed at which they go is marvellous.-114300-1016000How is power gained, consolidated, and maintained?Directions: After learning about each of the Post-Classical Civilizations listed below, record your notes on their methods for gaining, consolidating, and maintaining power. How did the Classical Civilization gain, consolidate, and maintain power?GAINGaining power is the process of getting it and expanding it.CONSOLIDATEConsolidating power is the process of taking control from other people who also have power. MAINTAINMaintaining power is the process of keeping one’s power. Islamic Caliphates Mongols“The Mongols were masters of military tactics. Due in large part to their military prowess, the Mongols rose to power in Asia with stunning speed”THE MONGOL EMPIRETHE MONGOL DYNASTY IN CHINAPastoral people from the region of modern-day Mongolia who were organized loosely into clansTemujin was born in the 1160’s and in 1206 was elected Genghis Khan (strong ruler); he was devoted to conquestThey created the largest land empire in historyMongol armies traveled both to the west and to the east and some went as far as central EuropeTheir war tactics were that of cavalry charges and siege warfareAfter the death of Genghis Khan in 1227 the empire began to changeThe territory was divided into several separate territories called khanates, each under the rule of one of his sonsThe death of Genghis Khan kept the Mongols from attacking Western Europe 1231: Mongols attacked Persia and then defeated the Abbasids in 12581260’s the Mongols defeated the Song dynasty in ChinaIn their attack on China they encountered gunpowder and firelance and by the end of the 13th century, the fireland evolved into a more effective gun and cannon1279: one of Genghis Kahn’s grandsons named Kublai Khan complete the conquest of the Song dynasty and established a new dynasty: the Yuan by claiming he had the “Mandate of Heaven”Continued to expand its empire and the armies advanced into Vietnam, and islands of JapanMongols’ fierce loyalty and respect for age blended with Chinese philosophyHis empire was one of prosperity and peaceCulturally, the two groups were much different and the Mongols became a separate class with their own laws but the Chinese highest position was held by a MongolMongol empire eventually fell victim to spending too much on foreign conquests, corruption at court, and growing internal stability1368: Zhu Yuanzhang the song of a peasant put together an army and ended the Mongol dynastyTHE MONGOLS IMPACT ON RUSSIA 1240-1400After the death of Genghis Kahn and the khanates split up the empire into four sections, one of them was the “Khanate of the Golden Horde” (the name is derived from the colorful tents of the Mongol encampments) in RussiaMongols merged with the Tatars and adopted Turkic language and IslamBatu Khan destroyed Kiev, the most important Russian state in 1240Conquest caused Kiev to decline into one of the most backward European nationsRussian princes became Mongol vassals and were required to pay heavy tribunesInternal divisions enabled Moscow nobles to defeat the Mongols in 1380They broke up into separate khanates of Astrakhan, Crimea, and KazanPax Mogolia: The Mongol Golden Age????Through their conquests and strong-handed rule, Genghis Khan and his sons and grandsons who followed him created stability and peace in the Mongol Empire in the 1200s and 1300s. Historians now refer to this period of order as the Pax Mongolica, or “Mongol Peace.” You may recall that the years between 27 BC and 180 AD of the Roman Empire are known as the Pax Romana, or the “Roman Peace” because of the prosperity in the Roman Empire that resulted from a strong centralized government and few wars. The same was true for the Pax Mongolica. ?????The political stability during the hundred years of the Pax Mongolica led to more and safer trade on the Silk Roads. Under the protection of the Mongols, goods and ideas moved between China and the Middle East once again. Most importantly, the innovations that started in the Golden Ages of the Tang and Song Dynasties in China, spread to the rest of Eurasia. Chinese techniques for making paper, printmaking, the compass, new agricultural techniques, ?and the use of gunpowder were then used and improved upon by people in Central Asia, India, the Middle East, North Africa, and eventually Europe. ????These innovations spurred historical events for centuries to come including the Age of Exploration during which European sailors using compasses for navigation travelled to the western hemisphere; The Reformation, a religious movement fueled by the writings of a monk named Martin Luther whose ideas circulated in paper pamphlets rapidly produced by printing presses; and gunpowder continues to spark conflict throughout the world. “Under the reign of Genghis Khan, all the countries . . . enjoyed such peace that a manmight have journeyed from the land of the sunrise to the land of sunset with a goldenplatter upon his head without suffering the least violence from anyone.”Source: Ghazi, Muslim chronicler,1270.In the space below, explain what the Pax Mongolia was and what impact it had on world history. 4724400-101600Directions: As you read, use the handout provided to evaluate and explain all the heroic and villainous acts carried out by the Mongols as they expanded their control that you can find in the text. Good luck!00Directions: As you read, use the handout provided to evaluate and explain all the heroic and villainous acts carried out by the Mongols as they expanded their control that you can find in the text. Good luck!The Mongols: Heroes or VillainsThe impact of the Mongol conquest on the conquered peoples included: Death Destruction Extortion of wealth Disease Displacement But, it also included: the intensification of activity on the trade routes connecting East Asia with the Mediterranean lands and Europe. the further spread of Islam in Asia 685800020369Notes00Notesthe advancement of Tibetan Buddhism in China. Death: The Mongols inflicted it on a large scale. In battle, their powerful bows caused heavy enemy casualties. Moreover, mass slaughter of defeated enemy soldiers and civilians was used as a deliberate policy of terror in order to: decrease the enemy’s will to fight. induce cities to surrender without fighting, thus avoiding long sieges, which the Mongol army could not afford because it needed to keep moving to find grazing land for its horses. avoid the risk of leaving enemies behind that might be capable of renewing resistance. reduce the size of the occupying detachments needing to be left behind. The total death toll directly inflicted by the Mongols during the period of their conquests, spanning nearly two centuries, may have been several millions. This includes the deaths by hunger and disease that were by-products of Mongol military operations and rule. …But: More urban populations were spared than were massacred. Often spared were artisans, clerics of all religions, scribes, scholars, merchants, young women, and often officers, nobles, and administrators. Mass slaughter was not a Mongol monopoly either in their own time or later. In taking a little Song Chinese town in 1218, the Jin general had 15,000 of the inhabitants put to the sword. In 1291, King Edward of England slew nearly 10,000 people of Berwick. In 1303, 30,000 Hindus died in a battle at Chitor. By the time of Mongke’s rule, the Great Khan insisted that destruction be limited to a minimum and civilians be left alone. To show he was serious, he had a senior Mongol commander of 10,000 publicly executed for killing a Persian civilian. Khubilai’s revision of the Chinese law code reduced the number of offenses that carried the death penalty to half what it had been under the previous dynasties. Destruction: The Mongols often destroyed the towns they attacked, usually as a by-product of the battle, sometimes deliberately after their conquest. Mongols traditionally had no use for towns. Destroying them was a practical measure to prevent their use for resistance. Irrigation channels, without which agriculture in regions with fragile ecosystems was impossible, were in many areas seriously damaged or neglected. Gradually they silted up and became unusable, with serious long-term ecological consequences that resulted in a set-back for agriculture over wide areas for centuries. This problem was especially acute in Persia and Iraq. Destruction was a by-product of the Mongols’ conquests, rather than policy. They were unaware of or uninterested in the damage; while the local population, reduced by flight, massacre, famine, disease, could not spare the labor to restore and maintain the irrigation channels. …But: There was a great deal of construction initiated and supported by the Mongols. Many of the towns the Mongols destroyed rose again a few years later with Mongol help. Courier services were expanded and many additional way stations were built along trade routes, where both troops and civilian travelers could get food, drink, lodging, and a change of horses. In China under Khubilai Khan, the postal relay system came to include 1400 way stations 14-40 miles apart. Roads and bridges built originally to service the Mongol military became trade and travel routes. The extension of the Grand Canal to Beijing by the Mongols allowed cheap transport of rice from southern to northern China. 6832600000Extortion of wealth: After first plundering the conquered, the conquerors were for a while satisfied with tribute in the form of demand of silk, grain, precious metals, and sophisticated war machinery. Unpredictable and capricious demands were gradually replaced with regular though intermittently extortionate taxes, sometimes made worse by demands that greedy Mongol princes and officials made for extra payments. …But: Some of the wealth that flowed to the Mongols was redistributed. Only part made its way to Mongolia. Much went back to those conquered areas where Mongols settled as occupying troops, administrators, and governors. From about 1250, the Mongols undertook reforms. The Great Khan Mongke commanded: “Make the agricultural population safe from unjustified harassment, and bring despoiled provinces back to a habitable condition.” He introduced the very modern graduated income tax; repaid debts of previous rulers said to be owing to merchants; and made it more difficult for princes and high officials to practice extortion. The lot of some segments of the conquered population actually improved, owing to profits from the trade promoted and supported by the Mongols, to their enforcement of law and order within their territories, and to their opening of careers to merit, not only birth or wealth. The poorest classes received something like government welfare assistance: food, clothes, and money. Disease: The association of disease and warfare is commonplace. Troops live under more unsanitary conditions than is normal. Unburied corpses often contaminated water supplies. Among the overcrowded and underfed in besieged cities and in close quartered armies, an infectious illness could spread quickly. The existing food supply must be stretched to feed the invading army, leaving little for the local population and thereby reducing its immune system. The frequent long-distance travel of military personnel, merchants, and others promoted the wider spread of diseases. Of these the Black Death (bubonic plague) was the best known and most severe. This disease may have been carried by soldiers from Inner Eurasia to the Black Sea, and from there to West Asia, North Africa, and Europe. This infection killed about one third of the total population of Europe. Displacement: During the Mongol campaigns of conquest and later, there was large-scale enslavement and forced movement of populations. Many fled in terror when news reached them of an approaching Mongol army. Within the army, peoples of different backgrounds were deliberately mixed in all groupings from 10 men to 10,000. They and their families, who often accompanied Mongol armies, moved long distances on campaigns and spent long periods in far-away places as occupying armies. In conquered territories, the Mongols usually rounded up the craftspeople, and assigned them to Mongol princes and commanders. These captives, who could number tens of thousands in a single city, were carried off to Mongolia or other parts of the growing empire. This gave rise to considerable population exchanges between Russia, Central Asia, Persia/Afghanistan, Mongolia, and China. …But: Although captive artisans and young women (destined to be slaves, concubines, prostitutes, and entertainers) often remained in their masters’ hands for the rest of their lives, some gained their freedom and married locally, some eventually returned to their homelands. Moreover, artisans often gained privileges. The movement of peoples resulted in exchanges of goods, ideas and styles and in frequent and widespread contact between peoples of widely different cultural, ethnic, religious, and language backgrounds. Thousands of people traveled from western and central parts of Eurasia to serve the Mongol regime in China. Marco Polo, the Venetian merchant who traveled to China with his father and uncle in 1271 and remained there for seventeen years, was just one of these foreigners seeking opportunity in Mongol administration. Genoese merchants, who traded extensively in the Muslim lands and Inner Eurasia in the Mongol era sold Chinese silk and “Tatar cloth” at the fairs of Northern France. Chinese artisans designed ceramics especially to appeal to Muslim tastes. The Chinese exported copper and iron goods, porcelain, silks, linens, books, sugar, and rice to Japan and Southeast Asia in return for spices and exotic items like rhino horns. At the time of his death in Italy, Marco Polo had among his possessions a Mongol slave, Tartar bedding, brocades from China, and a Buddhist rosary. Khubilai Khan had Persian copies of the works of Euclid and Ptolemy translated into Chinese. Egyptian experts were called in to improve Chinese sugar-refining techniques. Muslim medical and astronomical sciences became known in China. Chinese medical works were translated into Persian. Buddhist monks built Chinese style pagodas in Persia. Persian miniatures show Chinese-6826250000style mountains and dragons. A Mongol version of the traditional stories about Alexander the Great was produced. Diplomatic contact with Western Europe intensified. Columbus owned a copy of Marco Polo’s book, and on his first voyage he took with him a letter from the Spanish king to the Great Khan. Islam’s spread among the peoples of the Mongol empire was also helped by the movement of peoples. Many of the Turkic groups that allied with the Mongols had earlier converted to Islam. A significant number of them were literate, and employed by the Mongols as clerks, administrators, and translators as well as soldiers. They carried the Qur’an and their beliefs to new potential converts. Persia and Iraq were overwhelmingly Muslim when the Mongols swept in. Persian became one of the official languages of the Mongol empire, used even in China. And Persian culture, along with Islam, spread into Central and Eastern Asia. The Mongol Great Khans’ preferred Muslims for senior positions in China. They thought that foreign Muslims could be more impartial than local Chinese. The foreign recruits could be blamed in case of Chinese dissatisfaction. Scholars from Persia were especially admired for their scientific and cultural achievements. Starting in the thirteenth century, the Mongol khans of the Golden Horde and of Persia converted to Islam and threw their governments’ power behind the Muslim faith. Buddhism advanced in China owing partly to direct support from the Great Khans, starting with Khubilai. Tibetan lamas (monks), who had frequently held secular as well as religious power at home, began to move to China. Khubilai, whose wife Chabi was an ardent Buddhist, found the political experience of the lamas useful to him. He put a number of them in positions of power and influence. He also made large donations to Buddhist temples, gave tax-exemption to Buddhist monks, and supported them in their arguments with Chinese Daoists. Christianity lost out in the long run in Asia, though not through any action of the Mongols. Some members of the Mongol princely houses and senior advisors were Nestorian Christians. Christians also served in the army. Some of the steppe tribes within the Mongol empire were Nestorian Christians. Several Popes, that is, the head of the Latin, or Roman Catholic Christian church, sent several envoys and missionaries from western Europe to Mongolia and China. European leaders had hopes of allying with Mongol leaders against the Muslim powers that challenged European political and commercial interests in the eastern Mediterranean. Neither the political overtures nor missionary labors resulted in much success for the Latin Church in Asia. Christianity suffered partly because it did not speak with a single voice: believers in Latin Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Nestorian, and other Christian doctrines engaged in heated disputes with one another and competed for converts. Latin Christianity never caught on in any of the Mongol lands, and, with the advance of Islam, Nestorian communities in China and Inner Eurasia gradually shrank.LET’S REVIEWMost Heroic ActsMost Villainous ActsDISCUSSION QUESTION:Do you believe that the Mongols were heroes or villains? Use at least two details to support your answer:What would the Mongols’ twitter feed look like? Based on the experiences of various social and/or cultural groups shared in the reading, write 3 tweets to both the @Mongols and @real_GKhan from their perspectives. @Mongols @real_GKhan @ _____________________ @ _____________________ @ _____________________ @ _____________________ @ _____________________ @ _____________________Judging The Mongols Debateright1849510Your Task:Analyze attitudes toward Mongol expansion and rule in the 13th century.After analyzing and grouping the following documents, we will have a three-paneled debate to evaluate attitudes developed toward the Mongols as they established their vast empire in the 13th century. You will complete notes around the document as instructed by the diagram below, then we will create three document groups as a class, which will be represented in our debate.Notes around the Documents (8pts, one point per document):Complete BRIEF left- and right- side notes around each document. Include bottom-side notes only where evidence beyond the documents is clear and appropriate. You should spend no more than 20 minutes reading and annotating the documents.1606990121958Document should be lightly annotated00Document should be lightly annotated5369198114558Right Side Notes:Consider the document’s OPVL for Point of View Analyses0Right Side Notes:Consider the document’s OPVL for Point of View Analyses-91440141135Left Side Notes:Indicate how this document addresses the prompt to help GROUP the documents00Left Side Notes:Indicate how this document addresses the prompt to help GROUP the documents1634150167470Bottom Side Notes:Write down any evidence beyond the documents/ missing perspectives that can further the argument made by this document/author.00Bottom Side Notes:Write down any evidence beyond the documents/ missing perspectives that can further the argument made by this document/author.Document 1:right1016000According to Chinggis Khan’s shaman, reported in a Mongol-written hstory in 1228: you were born [1167] . . . everyone was feuding. Rather than sleep they robbed each other of their possessions. . . The whole nation was in rebellion. Rather than rest they fought each other. In such a world one did not live as one wished, but rather in constant conflict. There was no respite [letup], only battle. There was no affection, only mutual slaughter (Secret History of the Mongols, sec. 254, qtd. in Ratchnevsky 12). Document 2:According to the Italian friar John of Plano Carpini, who spent several months in the Great Khan's court in the late 1240’s: In the whole world there are to be found no more obedient subjects than the Tatar . . . they pay their lords more respect than any other people, and would hardly dare to lie to them . . . Their women are chaste . . . Wars, quarrels, the infliction [causing] of bodily harm, and manslaughter do not occur among them, and there are no large-scale thieves or robbers among them . . . They treat one another with due respect; they regard each other almost as members of one family, and, although they do not have a lot of food, they like to share it with one another. Moreover, they are accustomed to deprivation [doing without]; if, therefore, they have fasted for a day or two, and have not eaten anything at all, they do not easily lose their tempers . . . While riding they can endure extreme cold and at times also fierce heat They are extremely arrogant toward other people, [and] tend to anger . . . easily . . . They are the greatest liars in the world in dealing with other people . . . They are crafty and sly . . . [and] have an admirable ability to keep their intentions secret . . . They are messy in their eating and drinking and in their whole way of life, [and] cling fiercely to what they have. They have no conscience about killing other people . . . If anyone is found in the act of plundering or stealing in the territory under their power, he is put to death without any mercy. The chiefs or princes of the army . . . take up their stand some distance away from the enemy, and they have beside them their children on horseback and their womenfolk and horses . . . to give the impression that a great crowd of fighting- men is assembled there. (Qtd. in Spuler 78-79.) right12700000Document 3:According to the French friar William of Rubruck who spent several months in the Great Khan's court in the early 1250’s: It is the duty of the women to drive the carts, get the dwelling on and off them, milk the cows, make butter and to dress and sew skins . . . They also sew the boots, the socks, and the clothing, make the felt and cover the houses. The men make the bows and arrows, manufacture stirrups and bits, do the carpentering on their dwellings and carts; they take care of the horses, milk the mares, churn the mares’ milk, make the skins in which it is put; they also look after the camels and load them. Both sexes look after the sheep and goats. At the entrance [of the palace] Master William of Paris has made for him [the Great Khan] a large silver tree, at the foot of which are four silver lions each having a pipe and all belching forth white mares’ milk . . . The whole dwelling was completely covered inside with cloth of gold, and in the middle in a little hearth was a fire of twigs and roots of wormwood . . . and also the dung of oxen (Qtd. in Spuler 96-97). Document 4:According to a letter by a Hungarian bishop who had custody of two Tartar captives taken in Russia, written to the bishop of Paris in 1257: I asked them about their belief; and in few words, they believe nothing. They began to tell me, that they were come from their own country to conquer the world. They make use of the Jewish [actually, Uighur; the Uighurs were a semi-sedentary, literate steppe people, and early allies of the Mongols] letters, because formerly they had none of their own . . . They eat frogs, dogs, serpents and all things . . . Their horses are good but stupid (Qtd. in Paris 449). According to a description by Matthew Paris, English chronicler, in the 1270’s : They are inhuman and beastly, rather monsters than men, thirsting for and drinking blood, tearing and devouring the flesh of dogs and men, dressed in ox-hides, armed with plates of iron . . . thickset, strong, invincible, indefatigable . . . They are without human laws, know no comforts, are more ferocious than lions or bears . . . They know no other language than their own, which no one else knows; for until now there has been no access to them….so that there could be no knowledge of their customs or persons . . . They wander about with their flocks and their wives, who are taught to fight like men.Document 5:According to a southern Chinese author who was an eyewitness of the bloody Mongol campaign in north China: This man is brave and decisive, he is self-controlled, and lenient [merciful] towards the population; he reveres [respects] Heaven and Earth, prizes loyalty and justice.Document 6:The Indian historian Juzjani wrote in 1256 in the Sultanate of Delhi and had been an eyewitness of Chinggis Khan’s raid on India in 1221. According to him: A man of tall stature, of vigorous build, robust in body, the hair on his face scanty and turned white, with cat’s eyes, possessed of great energy, discernment [judgment], genius and understanding, awe inspiring, a butcher, just, resolute, an over thrower of enemies, intrepid [fearless], sanguinary [bloodthirsty] and cruel (Qtd. in Saunders 63). right000Document 7: Chinggis himself had a letter written to a Chinese Daoist sage whom he had invited to discuss religious topics. The Daoist’s companion included the letter in the account of the trip. He said: I wear the same clothing and eat the same food as the cow-herds and horse-herders. We make the same sacrifices and we share our riches. I look upon the nation as my new-born child, and I care for my soldiers as if they were my brothers (Qtd. in Ratchnevsky 149). Document 8:The Muslim historian Rashid al-Din, the official court historian of the Mongol khan of Persia. According to him, some of Chinggis’s sayings included: From the goodness of severity the stability of government. When the master is away hunting, or at war, the wife must keep the household in good order. Good husbands are known by their good wives. If a wife be stupid or dull, wanting in reason and orderliness, she makes obvious the badness of her husband. Only a man who feels hunger and thirst and by this estimates the feelings of others is fit to be a commander of troops. The campaign and its hardships must be in proportion with the strength of the weakest of the warriors. It is delightful and felicitous [good] for a man to subdue rebels and conquer and extirpate [destroy] his enemies, to take all they possess, to cause their servants to cry out, to make tears run down their faces and noses, to ride their pleasant-paced geldings [horses], to make the bellies and navels of their wives his bed and bedding, to admire their rosy cheeks, to kiss them and suck their red lips. Document 9:According to inference from the laws that by tradition Chinggis set up: If it is necessary to write to rebels or send messages to them they shall not be intimidated by an excessive display of confidence on our part or by the size of our army, but they shall merely be told: if you submit you will find peace and benevolence. But if you continue to resist—what then do we know [about your future]? Only God knows what then shall become of you.Whoever gives food or clothing to a captive without the permission of his captor is to be put to death. [Leaders are to] personally examine the troops and their armament before going to battle, even to needle and thread; to supply the troops with everything they need; and to punish those lacking any necessary equipment. Women accompanying the troops [are] to do the work and perform the duties of men, while the latter are absent fighting. All religions are to be respected and no preference is to be shown to any of them. Document 10:According to inference from the following decisions made by Chinggis Khan: When fighting against hereditary enemies of his tribe, Chinggis’s own son begged him to spare the life of the enemy leader’s son. Chinggis replied: “How often have we fought them? They have caused us much vexation and sorrow. How can we spare his life? He will only instigate another rebellion. I have conquered these lands, armies, and tribes for you, my sons. Of what use is he? There is no better place for an enemy of our nation than the grave (Rashid al-Din, Collected Chronicles, qtd. in Riasanovsky 86)! At a Grand Council meeting headed by Chinggis in 1202, it was decided that “in days gone by the Tartars killed our ancestors and forefathers. [Therefore] we will sacrifice them in revenge and retribution…by massacring all except the youngest….down to the very last male and the remainder will be shared as slaves among us all.Grouping the DocumentsUse the space below to brainstorm possible documents groups. Each group should represent a different _________________________________________.We will create three groups, together as a class, using the chart below:Describe the GroupGroup 1:Group 2:Group 3:DocumentsExplain the arguments supported by these documentsDebate Prep SheetMy Group’s Attitude: ______________________________________________________________________________________DocumentsDoc #Attitude EvidentPOV AnalysisEVIDENCE that can be used to argue your assigned attitudePossible counter-argumentsOutside InformationSourceEvidence FoundExplain how this can help you argue your attitudePossible counter-argumentsDebate NotesGroup #________Group # _______AttitudeArguments and supporting evidenceMy perspectiveREFLECTION: Which claim about the Mongols to you most agree with and why?Judging the Mongols Debate: Judges Prep SheetUse the table below to compile evidence are argument needed to formulate your questions for each panel:DocumentsGroup #Attitude EvidentPOV Analysis (Choose 1 supporting doc)Evidence that can be used to argue this attitudePossible questionsOutside InformationGroup #Relevant EvidenceHow does this support or challenge the attitude this group will be arguing?Possible questionsGROUP 1 QUSTIONS (What are they trying to prove, again? _________________________________________________)Clarifying Questions: Simple?questions?of fact; used to clarify the dilemma and provide the information participants need to better understand the text and classmates’ ideas. World History Theme Questions: questions about the 5 themes of AP World History; used to develop “big ideas.” Theme: Question: Theme: Question:Open-Ended Questions: questions without a known or definite answer; used to explore topics more deeply and prompt classmates to share their own interpretations of evidence in the ic:Question: Topic: Question:GROUP 2 QUSTIONS (What are they trying to prove, again? _________________________________________________)Clarifying Questions: World History Theme Questions: Theme: Question: Theme: Question:Open-Ended Questions: Topic:Question: Topic: Question:GROUP 3 QUSTIONS (What are they trying to prove, again? _________________________________________________)Clarifying Questions: World History Theme Questions: Theme: Question: Theme: Question:Open-Ended Questions: Topic:Question: Topic: Question:DURING DEBATEGroup #1Group: #2Group #3Important Claims & supporting evidenceResponses to my questionsQuestion:Response:Question:Response:Question:Response:REFLECTION: Which claim about the Mongols to you most agree with and why?Name: _________________________________Date:______________________Period: __________55245006350000Global 9 Pre-AP World HistoryProject – Marking Period 3ProjectMARKING PERIOD 3 PROJECT Mongols – Creation of a Scrapbook TASK: You are going to be creating a scrapbook for the Mongolian Empire. The scrapbook can be made on 8 x 11 paper, 12 x 12 paper or scrap book paper. The pages must be bound together when the assignment is turned in. The paper does not have to be actual scrapbooking paper that is bought at a store. You can be creative with the background paper that you use, the preparation of your scrapbook, etc.The scrapbook should include the following:A decorative title page that includes the authorTwo (2) pages for each of the following regions/Khanate: Golden Horde in Russia, Il Khanate in Persia, Yuan Dynasty in ChinaSynthesis PageBinding in some form Color, creativity and effortEach Region/Khanate page must include:The Region/KhanateDates (beginning – end) -8572531686500Images that represent the social, political and economic impact on the region. Images must have a caption. Each page should have 4-5 images (you may use more than one picture for an impact. Also, you may find an impact branches off into other impact). One image for each may be a secondary source passage commenting on a particular impact. Summary statement (should be typed, 1 paragraph)What is the most significant impact that comes out of this region and why? Make sure to explain your justification. Explain how this region impacted interaction/cultural exchange within the Mongolian Empire.This will be done for each region.You will include one synthesis page:Synthesis – Compare the Mongolian Empires efforts to consolidate and maintain power to another historical empire. You are not completing synthesis for each region, you are writing one synthesis for the entire Mongolian Empire (1 substantial paragraph).Include relevant and appropriate visualsYou may use any resources available, including the textbooks, your class notes, and computers during “Lab Research Days” (please see project schedule for days). We wish you the best of luck and we are looking forward to some very impressive and creative projects!5429256159500PROJECT DUE: ________________________________________________________Student Name: _______________________________________________________Period: ___________________CATEGORY 10-87-54-21-0Images /Graphics Originality Images are all in focus and the content easily viewed and identified. Images all relate to the content. Images all have a caption underneath. There are 4-5 images per page. Several of the visuals used on the scrapbook reflect an exceptional degree of student creativity in their creation and/or display. The student created an actual scrapbook not a word document with that was copy/pasted.Most images are all in focus and the content easily viewed and identified. Most images relate to the content. Most images have a caption underneath. Student does not have the correct # of images. One or two of the visuals used in the scrapbook reflect student creativity in their creation and/or display.Some images are all in focus and the content easily viewed and identified. Some images relate to the content. Some images have a caption underneath. Student does not have the correct # of images.The visuals are made by the student, but are based on the designs or ideas of others.Images were not completed correctly. No visuals made by the student are included.Required Elements The scrapbook includes all required elements as well as additional information. The student may have added factual information or visual contents. All but 1 of the required elements are included in the scrapbook. All but 2 of the required elements are included in the scrapbook. Several required elements were missing. Summary Statement Content All of the facts are accurate in the scrapbook. The summary statement had details and was well thought out. The summary statement was 8-10 sentences.Most of the facts are accurate in the scrapbook. The summary statement had details and was well thought out. Some of the facts are accurate in the scrapbook. The summary statement lacked details.Less than 3 of the facts are accurate in the scrapbook. There were no summary statements = 0.Attractiveness The scrapbook is exceptionally attractive in terms of design, layout, and neatness. The scrapbook demonstrates tremendous effort. The scrapbook is attractive in terms of design, layout and neatness. The scrapbook is acceptably attractive though it may be a bit messy. The scrapbook is distractingly messy or very poorly designed. It is not attractive. Synthesis Superior synthesis when evaluating DBQ rubric standards.Excellent synthesis when evaluating DBQ rubric standardsFair synthesis when evaluating DBQ rubric standards.Significant improvement needed.SCRAPBOOK SCORING SUMMARYTOTAL: _____________/50 x 2 = _______________/100, Project grade MP3Yuan Dynasty DocumentsKhubilai Khan’s LeadershipKhubilai Khan was the Great Khan and ruled China. But his relatives who ruled Chagatay, the Golden Horde, and the Ilkhanate in Persia and Iraq were in reality independent, though acknowledging the Great Khan as supreme. The term Ilkhanate means “deputy” of the Great Khan. The military under Khubilai Khan consisted of an infantry and a navy, as well as cavalry. Soldiers were paid from the government treasury. In China, Muslims, Christians, and Buddhists from central and western Eurasia were given most key positions because the Mongol rulers distrusted Chinese high officials owing to their local interests and loyalties. Governing methods were a mixture of Chinese, Muslim, Turkish, and Mongol ideas. Finances for the empire came almost entirely from relatively low-level taxation, based on as accurate a census of the population as possible. Khubilai Khan performed public Confucian rituals prescribed for Chinese emperors, while personally leaning towards Tibetan Buddhism and keeping up to shamanist rituals. Treatment of People in the Yuan DynastyIdeology of conquest showed in Khubilai's thinking of himself as a universal emperor. He made repeated, though mostly unsuccessful, attempts to conquer Japan, Vietnam, Burma, and even Java in Southeast Asia. Khubilai's ideology of rule was not only to enrich Mongols, but also to serve China as a Son of Heaven. Concerned to establish the legitimacy of his rule, he tried, with some success, to enlist the goodwill and support of the peoples he ruled. Among Buddhists, his legitimacy was bolstered when monks declared him to the reincarnation of a Bodhisattva, or Buddhist saint. He worked to keep Mongol backing by acting traditionally in at least some ways, and protecting Mongols’ privileged position in the empire. He drew his advisors from many ethnic, language, and religious backgrounds. In line with Khubilai’s ideology of rule, his government had a welfare program. It paid for assistance to the old, infirm, and poor out of taxes. Villages that suffered natural disasters were sent grain, clothes, cash, and had their taxes cancelled. Infrastructure and Society in the Yuan DynastyKhubilai founded the Office for Stimulation of Agriculture; forbade nomad animals from roaming on farmland; arranged for the teaching of advanced agricultural techniques to the population around the old Mongol capital of Karakorum; and forgave taxes for those who chose to become settled farmers. He moved the Mongol capital to a newly-built city near modern Beijing in China, its site chosen according to the Chinese ideas of feng shui. The name of the dynasty was changed to Yuan—Chinese word meaning “origin.” Mongols were forbidden intermarriage with Chinese. Women’s position under Mongol rule was generally higher than it had been in the agricultural societies the Mongols had conquered. A woman was named provincial governor under Khubilai. Mongol women refused to adopt the Chinese custom of foot binding. Khubilai took his second wife Chabi’s advice on some public issues.The Khanate of the Golden Horde DocumentsRussia after the Mongol Conquest: An Eyewitness Account“The Mongols went against Russia and enacted a great massacre in the Russian land, they destroyed towns and fortresses and killed people, they besieged Kiev which had been the capital of Russia, and after a long siege they took it and killed the inhabitants; for this reason, when we passed through that land, we found lying in the field countless skulls and bones of dead people; for this city had been extremely large and very populous, whereas now it has been reduced to nothing; barely two hundred houses stand there, and those people are held in the harshest slavery.” -Archbishop Plano Carpini, 1245The Role of the Mongols in Russian History“The Mongol rule over the Russians lasted for almost 250 years… It cut Russia off from Byzantium and in part from Western Europe, and reinforced the relative isolation of the country. It has been suggested that, but for the Mongols, Russia might well have participated in such European developments as the Renaissance and the Reformation. The heavy taxes imposed by the Mongols laid a severe burden on the Russians… Indeed, certain historians have estimated that the long term impact of Mongol invasion and domination of Russia was that it retarded the development of the country by some 150-200 years.”Capital in Sarai BatuBatu (a Mongol leader) founded his capital, Sarai Batu, on the lower stretch of the Volga River. The capital was later moved upstream to Sarai Berke, which at its peak held perhaps 600,000 inhabitants. The Horde was gradually Turkified and Islamized, especially under their greatest khan, ?z Beg (1312–41). The Turkic tribes concentrated on animal husbandry in the steppes, while their subject peoples, East Slavs, Mordvinians, Greeks, Georgians, and Armenians, contributed tribute. The Russian princes, particularly those of Muscovy, soon obtained responsibility for collecting the local tribute. The Horde carried on an extensive trade with Mediterranean peoples, particularly their allies in Mamlūk Egypt and the Genoese.Il Khanate in PersiaConversion to IslamThe Il-khans were markedly out of step with the Muslim majority they ruled. However, Ghazan, shortly before he overthrew Baidu, converted to Islam and his official favoring of Islam went along with a marked attempt to bring the regime closer to the non-Mongol majority. Christian and Jewish subjects however lost their equal status with Muslims and again had to pay the poll tax. Buddhists had the starker choice of conversion or expulsion. In foreign relations however things this conversion had no effect and Ghazan fought the Mamluks for Syria. For the most part, this policy continued under his brother ?ljeitü despite suggestions that he might seek to favor the Shiah version of Islam. He succeeded in conquering Gilan on the Caspian coast and his magnificent tomb in Soltaniyeh remains the best known monument of Ilkhanid rule in Persia.Timur’s WrathIn the 14th century, Mongol power enjoyed a brief resurgence in Central Asia. Tamerlane (or Timur), a Turkish-Mongol ruler in Central Asia, expanded his kingdom into Persia, Afghanistan, Russia, Syria, Turkey, and northern India. Tamerlane was known for his brutality in warfare and his massacre of civilian populations. His empire did not last much beyond his death.Tamerlane destroys Damascus, 1401“ ‘I am the scourge (whip) of God appointed to chastise (discipline) you, since no one knows the remedy for your unfairness except me. You are wicked, but I am more wicked than you, so be silent!’ Thus spoke the all-powerful Mongol conqueror , Tamerlane, to a delegation of citizens outside the city of Damascus, the greatest city in Syria, in early 1410. The citizens had come to protest that the TRIBUTE demanded of them was beyond their means…Even after they had paid up, however, Tamerlane was not satisfied, and he handed over the city to his soldiers. What happened next was described by the Arab historian ibn-Taghribirdi: “They were beaten with canes, crushed in presses, scorched in flames, and suspended head down; their nostrils were stopped with rags full of fine dust, which they inhaled each time they took a breath so that they almost died.”-The Age of Calamity: AD 1300-1400 ................
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