ORGANIZATION OF PROFESSION AND PROFESSIONAL …



LECTURE NOTE ON SOC 314SOCIOLOGY OF OCCUPATIONS AND PROFESSIONS PREPARED BY OLOLO KENNEDY OKECHUKWU (PhD),DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY, PSYCHOLOGY, CRIMINOLOGY AND SECURITY STUDIES,(SOCIOLOGY PROGRAMME),FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT AND SOCIAL SCIENCES,FEDERAL UNIVERSITY NDUFU ALIKE-IKWO, EBONYI STATE, NIGERIA.COURSE SPECIFICATIONS - Introduction-Meaning of Sociology -Sociology of Occupation and profession-Theories of work-Work Processes and organization-Occupation, Classifications and distribution -Patterns of occupational distributions in Nigeria versus other industrialized countries -Occupational preferences in Nigeria midterm test/examination.-Socialization, occupational selection and roles.-The profession, characteristics, consequences and processes if professionalization -Organizations of professions-Professional services in Nigeria-Profession and the Nigerian State-Revision-Examination.Reading list could be gotten from any book in industrial sociology, management and human resource management. INTRODUCTION The study of sociology of occupations and professions is integral in the broader study of human existence because as adults, we spend most part of our lives in occupation and our choice of profession determines our basic existence. Our sociological analysis of world of work will offer students a broader understanding on how our occupational life is being sharped in social ways. Sociology of occupations and professions should be conceptualized as a profession which encompasses both a discipline that generates new knowledge and a practice that utilizes this knowledge. Sociology is the scientific study of society, ie the systematic study of social behaviour in human societies. Sociology of occupations and profession thus means the systematic study of occupations and profession and their impact on the behaviours of the people in the society. WORK Work is a universal phenomenon. Whether in the so-called primitive state of mankind or in more advanced stages of cultures, work has always been practiced as an ordinary vocation of man, demanded from him by nature and society and as a contribution to the public welfare which at the same time, entitles him to share in the goods available in the community. The concept of work is defined as an expenditure of energy, striving, application of effort to achieve some purpose, while economists defines work as “one of the major factors of production consisting of manual or mental exertion for which wages, salaries or professional fees are received. Raymond firth (1957) defined work as an income producing activity” or as a purposeful activity entraining expenditure of energy at some sacrifice of pleasure or leisure.Similarly Kuper and Kuper (1996) defined work as any physical or mental activities which transform natural material into a more useful form, improve human knowledge and understanding of the world and/or provide or distribute goods to others.Marshal (1996) defined work as the supply of physical, mental and emotional effort to produce goods and services for own consumption, or for consumption by others productive work falls into three categories.1.Economic activity or employment2.Leisure activities3.Volunteer Community ServicesWork can then be defined as the exertion of effort and the application of knowledge and skills to achieve a purpose.FUNCTIONS OF WORKMost people work to earn a living-ie to make money. But they also work because of the other satisfaction it bring such as doing something worthwhile, a sense of achievement, prestige, recognition, the opportunity to use and develop abilities, the scope to exercise power and companionship. However, the most obvious purpose of work is the economic function of producing goods and services. In return for production, the employee is paid wages that are used in buying goods, clothing, shelter and other luxuries of life.THEORIES OF WORKThe theories about work consist of labour process theory, agency theory and exchange theory.1.Labour Process theory:Labour Process Theory was originally formulated by Karl Marx. His thesis was that surplus is appropriated from labour by paying it less than the value it adds to the labour process. Capitalists therefore design the labour process to secure the extraction of surplus value. The human capacity to produce is subordinated to the exploitative demands of the capitalist, which is an alien power confronting the workers who becomes a crippled by furthering his skill as if in a forcing house through the suppression of a whole world of productive drives and inclinations. Considerably later, a version of labour process theory was set out by Braverman (1974). His view was that the application of modern management techniques, in combination with mechanization and automation, secures the real subordination of labour and de-skilling of work in the office as well as the shop floor. He stated that the removal of all forms of control from the worker is “the ideal towards which management tends, and in pursuit of which it uses every productive innovation shared by science. He saw this as essentially the application of “Taylorism” – is Fedrick Taylor’s concept of scientific management meaning the use of systematic observation and measurement, task specialism and in effect the reduction of workers to the level of efficiently functioning machines.However, Braverman’s notion of labour process theory has been criticized as being simplistic by subsequent commentators such as Littler and Salarman (1982) who argue that there are numerous determinants in the control of labour process.Furthermore, Friedman (1977) believes that Braverman’s version neglects the diverse and sophisticated character of management control as it responds not only to technological advances but also to changes in the degree and intensity of worker’s resistance and new product and labour market conditions managements are constantly seeking ways to improve the effectiveness of control try to squeeze the last drop of surplus value out of their labour.II.AGENCY THEORY:Agency or principal agent theory indicates that principal (owners and managers) have to develop ways of monitoring and controlling the activities of their agents (staff). Agency theory suggests that principals may have problems in ensuring that agents do what they are told. It is necessary to clear up ambiguities by setting objectives and meritorioes performance to ensure that objectives are achieved.Agency theory has been criticized as being managerialist i.e it looks at the employment relationships purely from management’s point of view and regards employees as objects to be motivated by the carrot and stick. It is a dismal theory which suggests that people cannot be trusted.III.EXCHANGE THEORY:Exchange theory sets out to explain organizational behavior in terms of the reward and costs incurred in the interactions between employers and employees. They are made up four concepts:1.Rewards:Pay-offs that satisfies needs emerging from the interactions between individuals and their organizations.2.Costs:Fatigue, stress, anxiety, punishments and the value of rewards that people have lost because of lack of opportunity.3.Outcomes:Rewards minus cost if positive, the interaction yields a “profit” and this is satisfactory as long as it exceed the minimum level of expectation.4.Level of Comparisons: People evaluate the outcome of an interaction against the profit they are forgoing elsewhere.WORK PROCESSES:In any organization, work is carried out through processes, therefore, to ensure efficiency and effectiveness, there is need for a clear definition of the work processes. These processes should be facilitated by systems and tools. The tools and resources offer strategies and approaches for helping workers to be as productive as possible in their daily work. Work processes connotes how work gets done the degree of team work and interdependence amongst organizational units and the role of technology (Armstrong 2006). It entails the Nitty gritty of what it takes to gets work done in an organization.WORK ORGANIZATION:Work Organization is about the control of work and the division of labour. It includes the task performed, who performs them and how they are performed in the process of making a product or providing a service.FORMS OF WORK ORGANIZATIONThese includes:1.Hours of work2.Pace of work3.Work load4.Number of people performing a job (staffing levels)5.Length and number of rest or break and days away from work.6.Assignment of tasks and responsibilities7.Training for the tasks being performed8.Layout of the workOCCUPATIONS: CLASSIFICATIONS AND DISTRIBUTIONS:OCCUPATION: Occupation can be defined as a group of similar jobs, positions or functions performed by a person (Omeje, 2007). Udoh and Sanni (2002) maintained that occupation is a way of life, which determines one’s social status income, choice of friends, mental and physical health.OCCUPATIONAL CLASSIFICATIONS: Occupational Classification is a mean of organizing jobs into a clearly distinct set of groups based on the tasks and duties carried out in the job. The fundamental decisive factory in any classification system are the skill level and specialization needed for the competent fulfillment of the occupational specification.The National Occupational Classification is drawn from the international labour organization’s (ILO) and international standard classification of occupations (ISCO).The first National Classification of occupations in Nigeria was developed in 1966. It was subsequently reviewed and updated in 1986 with the technical assistance of the ILO. The International Standard Classification of Occupation (ISCO) is ILO classification structure for organizing information on labours and job. It is part of the International family of Economic and Social classifications of the United Nations. The current version knowns as ISCO- 08 was published in 2008 and is the fourth iteration following ISCO-58, ISCO-68, and ISCO-88.The ISCO-08 structure:The ISCO-08 divides jobs into 10 major groups:1.Managers2.Professionals 3.Technicians and Associate Professionals4.Clerical Support Workers5.Service and Sales Workers6.Skilled Agricultural, forestry and fishery workers7.Craft and Related Trades Workers8.Plant and Machine Operators and Assemblies.9.Elementary Occupation10.Armed Forces Occupations.OCCUPATIONAL CLASSIFICATION AND DISTRIBUTION IN NIGERIA:When Occupations are classified, they certainly breed status ascription, invariably when a worker is classified, it has implications for his skill, experience, pay and of course, social status or prestige of the occupation. Occupations in Nigeria can be classified into four broad categories that are not in all senses mutually exclusive:1.Managerial/Administrative – High qualification, high prestige, high pay.2.Professional/Supervisory - High prestige, high pay.3.Clerical/Skilled Artisans – semi prestige4.Unskilled/Manual – No prestige, low payment.IMPORTANCE OF OCCUPATIONAL CLASSIFICATION1.Job matching ie (job vacancy + job seekers) occupational classification helped in job matching, which comes through identifying job vacancy verse the job seekers.2.Statistical Purposes – occupational occupation helps in knowing the occupation that attract more people and the one that attracts less number of people.3.Management of job migration – Through job classification, job migration could be managed effectively. It helps in managing short or long term migration of workers between countries.4.Vocational Guidance and Training – Job classifications gives rooms for vocational guidance and training of individuals that engaged in various occupation.It is the most complex problem confronting youths today, this involves choosing a realistic and appropriate occupation, preparing for it, liking it and keeping it. The trauma of choosing a career was not so evident in the traditional Nigerian system. Then children followed the career paths of their parents towing the gender line. These occupational stereotypes are so pervasive in our society that they are even learned by children as young as three years old.As regards the choice of occupations, the aspirations and ambition nurtured by youths usually exceed what they can or will eventually get. Infact youthful dreams are easily crushed at the job market. Since some of them are neither consistent nor true of the person’s social position and potentials.From the above, the choice of occupation in any society are affected by certain economic and socio-cultural factors. These are:Level of education Ignorance of job opportunitiesThe influence of role modelsCultural values/reference groupsClassSkillLevel of societal development1.Level of Education: The type of education and level of education acquired by an individual goes a long way in determining the type of occupation he will be involved in. the influence of education in occupational choice is more pervasive in modern societies where acquisition of certificates and diplomas are deemed necessary for meaningful involvement in the labour process.2.Ignorance of Job Opportunities: Ignorance in this light can be seen in two ways – via. –Lack of education leads to ignorance of job opportunities by the mere fact that an uneducated job seekers may not be able to comprehend job vacancy requirement. In order words, he may lack the cognitive of educational skill to read and understand job adverts and to know where he falls in as a result of his skill and experiences. Lack of information on the other hand him it’s the ability to make an informed choice regarding occupation and it also hinders the ability to conduct a meaningful search for work. Therefore people who are ignorant of prevailing labour markets trends end up either being in a wrong profession or being underemployed.3.Influence of Role Model:Role models are persons we see as having desirable attributes worthy of emulation. In almost all areas of social life, people unconsciously structure their behaviours to fit in with those of their role models. Therefore, in choosing occupation, one might want to take on the jobs that our role models are doing. The influence of role models is more pronounced among children and youths.4.Cultural Values: Certain occupations are specially valued in some cultural settings and in the same way, some are despised. As a matter of fact, in societies practicing the rigid caste system, the type of work somebody does may be influenced by his caste status.5.Class:The kind of occupation and individual does is sometimes determined by his social class. In this sense, individuals in choosing occupations are motivated by the need to end up with occupations seen as consistent with their social class. However, the influence of class is more pronounced in its inscriptive tendency.6.Skill: This is sometimes directly related to education but it is always consistent with experience. Skill refers to the acquisition of ability to perform required or designated job tasks beyond a stipulated minimum. Skill can come in various forms but your skill relates you to a particular occupation.7.Level of Societal Development:This should be seen in this perspective as the level of industrialization attained by a particular society, invariably, the clothes we wear the food we eat, the house we build and the cars we drive are determined mainly by our level of industrialization. So also, is the occupation we choose. As a result, an individual’s choice of occupation is strictly limited to the types of occupation available in his society.SOCIALIZATION OCCUPATIONAL SOCIALIZATION AND OCCUPATION SELECTION:SOCIALIZATION: Socialization is a continuous process of learning the belief, norms and values that are socially expected of us as a member of a particular society or social group. Through socialization, culture is learned and internalized by each normal member of a society (Stank, 2004).An important sociological perspective to socialization is that it is not restricted to childhood but continues throughout life for new members in the workplace, socialization is the process of learning to be insider, it is learning to view the world through the chosen occupational lenses.Occupational Socialization: Occupational socialization is defined as the process whereby one generation passes on to another the technical knowledge, ideologies and expected behaviours deemed necessary to perform an occupational roles.Occupation socialization and by extension adult socialization is different from that of children, though the fundamental processes might be alike. Trice (1993) maintains that “occupational socialization frequently involves not only the learning of new roles but the unlearning of old ones and the distinct possibilities of having to occupy conflicting roles. Dissimilarly, the insentient ie (having no consciousness and over impressing influence of the agents of socialization in childhood makes the child to acquire values and roles outside his/her control.Process of becoming a member of an organization – ie occupational socialization 1.By attraction – ie when a particular occupation is attracting the attention of an individual one will be consciously or unconsciously learning such occupation.2.By Recruitment/Selection3.By Socialization Intensifies4.By Training and Indoctrination Occupational Selection: Selection entails matching the available human resource to jobs.Recruitment exercises are undertaken to attract qualified applicants, once this is done, occupation selection ensues which is a process of identifying the best suited applicants and make them join the organization. This process involves shortlisting from the applications, interview or selection test, then selection decision. Occupation Roles:A roles can be defined as a set of expectations held by the individuals concerned and those about them concerning how a job or task is to be performed (Cole 2002). It connotes definite behavioural terms required to undertake a particular or a group of task contained in a job. Armstrong (2000) argues that the concept of a role lays emphasis on the fact that people at work are always acting a part, they are not simply reciting the lives but interpreting in terms of their own perception of how they should behave in relation to the context in which they work, especially with regard to their interactions with other people and their discretionary behavior. A role is different from a job or position, a job description spells out the tasks or duties (the script) while a role or role profile is concerned with the action and outcome, behavioural aspects of achieving the result (acting out the script). Roles should be clear cut to avoid ambiguity and conflict. PROFESSION, CHARACTERISTICS, CODE OF CONDUCT (VALUES) OF PROFESSIONALS AND CONSEQUENCES OF PROFESSIONALIZATIONPROFESSION: This refers to a vocation or a calling to specialize in a particular type of work activity geared primarily towards the fulfilment of certain essential human and social needs and towards a satisfaction a of one’s caring to help others. Technically a profession refers to any activity that demands acquisition of lengthy education (as measured by years or number of degrees), specialization, tremendous skill and a commitment to the job that is above every other thing. While one can occupy a specific occupational status with little or no training. One can only occupy a professional status with a combination of lengthy education, enormous skills, specialization and a significant level of commitment to the profession for its own sake. This root might suggest that a professional is someone who claims to possess knowledge and has a commitment to a particular code or set of values.Characteristics of a profession: Grode (1960) Babar (1963) Haralamnos and Heald (1980) Nettleton (2006) had outline the following as the acceptable characteristics of profession: 1. Specialized knowledge 2. Lengthy training 3. Concern for the interest of the community not self. 4. Monopoly over practice 5. Autonomy, 6. Professional code of Ethics 7. High Rewards Code of conduct (values) of professionals (1) Ethics: This means a burning desires emotionally involved and without self-interest. (2) Expertise: This is a sort of capability or skill acquired either through a prolonged training in a body of abstract knowledge or through experience. (3) Identification: This refers to a close association with the profession and with the profession and with other professionals. (4) Commitment: A profound devotion to the profession that is held above all other consideration. (5) Colleagialism: This is a willingness to maintain standards associated with the profession and to help to police other professional in order to ensure that they confirm to the standards of the profession. (6) Autonomy: This refers to the need to have control over the choice of means and ends. In core professionals’ areas, practitioners hardly last long if they find themselves in an environment where a second party dictates either the means or the ends especially when such a person is not a fellow professional. These values differs from society to society. CONSEQUENCES OF PROFESSIONALISM: - Increase in trade union activism - Difficulty in standardization and measurement of output of professionals. - Resistant to managerial intervention and organizational Controls- Practitioner malpractice and unprofessional behaviour. - Large fee salary increase in particular professional sectors and divisions between commercial and social service practitioners. ORGANIZATION OF PROFESSION AND PROFESSIONAL SERVICES IN NIGERIA Professionalism was seen to be less an aspiration for efficiency than it is forpecuniary interest. A professional association is a body acting to safeguard the public interest of an organization, which represents the interest of the professional practitioners, acting to maintain their own privileged and powerful position as a controlling body. The organization of professions into associations is a strategy to safeguard the professions and public interest. The academic staff union of universities (ASUU) and the Nigerian union ofJournalist (NUJ) will be used as a point of reference to discuss theorganization and contributions of professions in Nigeria. Different professions offer different professional services, the legal profession and the medical profession will be as examples in the discussion of professional services. Profession and their relationships with the Nigeria state. - People repose so much trust on professionals sometimes abuse the trust. -Professional lay- ignorant relationship Conflictual relationship: trade unions verses government (NMA, ASUU andthe government of the day). Most professions backed by their associations have been in constant disagreement with the government. Bibliography : ................
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