Works Cited - 2013 CSUMB WLC BA in Japanese Language …



Jennifer BermanDecember 13, 2011JAPN 308Andrew PainterJapanese and Korean Idols: A History and ComparisonOne of the biggest genres in Japanese pop music is “idol” music, bubblegum pop songs sung by young girls and young men either solo or in groups. J-pop idols first became popular in the late 1960s and early 1970s, and since then, have experienced highs and lows in popularity. Currently, idol groups have come in vogue again in Japan, particularly the group AKB48, which has had many million-selling singles CITATION Ori11 \l 1033 (Oricon), is everywhere in the media, and has even spun off several regional offshoot groups. However, the most notable thing about the current idol craze in Japan is that many South Korean pop groups, such as Girls’ Generation, KARA, and Dong Bang Shin Ki (known as Tohoshinki in Japanese) have been gaining popularity and selling well CITATION Mat11 \l 1033 (Matsutani). Japan and Korea have long had animosity towards each other, mainly from Japan’s colonization of Korea, which lasted from 1910 until 1945 CITATION Jun07 \p 38 \l 1033 (Jung 38), and yet not only have “K-pop” idols found an audience in Japan, but have become mainstream there. This paper will examine some similarities and differences between Japanese and Korean idols and offer some reasons for K-pop’s success in Japan.The word “idol” (aidoru) began being used in the Japanese language around 1964, when the French film Cherchez l’idole, starring singer Sylvie Vartan, was released in Japan. Vartan’s theme song from the movie sold a million copies and soon, Japanese singers began doing covers of French songs CITATION Ash10 \p 36 \l 1033 (Ashcraft and Ueda 36). The “idol” genre began to emerge in the 1970s with the rise of teenage female singers such as Yamaguchi Momoe, Sakurada Junko and Mori Masako, who had youthful images and wore schoolgirl uniforms on the covers of their records CITATION Ash10 \p 37 \l 1033 (Ashcraft and Ueda 37). Male idols, such as Saijo Hideki, Noguchi Goro, and Go Hiromi, also became popular around this time CITATION Jun07 \p 49 \l 1033 (Jung 49). Go Hiromi was managed by the management agency Johnny & Associates (also known as Johnny’s Jimusho), which was founded in 1967 CITATION Aoy00 \p 317 \l 1033 (Aoyagi 317) and would come to dominate the male idol market over the years with groups such as SMAPCITATION Dar04 \p 1 \l 1033 (Darling-Wolf 1). Yamaguchi Momoe on the cover of her second album, Go Hiromi on the cover of his 1972 hit singleAoi Kajitsu/Kinjirareta Asobi (Unripe Fruit/Forbidden Otoko no Ko, Onna no Ko (Boys and Girls).Game).Idols were discovered through audition TV shows such as Sutaa Tanjou! (A Star is Born!), or through local auditions held by management agencies in which hundreds of young men and women participated CITATION Aoy00 \p 316 \l 1033 (Aoyagi 316). Along with the many solo idol singers, there were popular groups as well, such as the female duo Pink Lady, which debuted in 1976. They sang disco songs, and appeared in many TV commercials, variety shows and music shows. They even tried to debut in America, releasing an English-language song “Kiss in the Dark” in 1979, which only reached #37 on the Billboard chart CITATION Jun07 \p 50 \l 1033 (Jung 50).The 1980s saw the rise of many new idols. One of the most famous idol singers of the decade was Matsuda Seiko, who debuted in 1980 with the single “Hadashi no Kisetsu” (“Barefoot Season”) CITATION Jun07 \p 51 \l 1033 (Jung 51), and set a record for having twenty-four number one singles in a row on Japan’s Oricon chart, the equivalent of the Billboard chartCITATION Ash10 \p 42 \l 1033 (Ashcraft and Ueda 42). Matsuda popularized the “cute” image that is a big part of Japanese idol music today CITATION Mat08 \p 119 \l 1033 (Mattar 119), and was often referred to as a “burikko,” or “a woman who acts young and girlish to appeal to men” CITATION Ash10 \p 42 \l 1033 (Ashcraft and Ueda 42). Unlike many other 1980s idols, Matsuda continues to release music today; her most recent single came out in November 2011.Some popular Japanese idols of the 80s: Matsuda Seiko, Onyanko Club and Koizumi Kyoko (from left to right)As for idol groups, one of the most popular was Onyanko Club (Kitty Cat Club), which debuted in 1985 on “All Night Fuji,” a late-night show on Fuji TV CITATION Ash10 \p 39 \l 1033 (Ashcraft and Ueda 39). They had a large amount of members, debuting with 11 girls, with 52 girls becoming members over the yearsCITATION Ash10 \p 41 \l 1033 (Ashcraft and Ueda 41). Some of their songs had more risqué lyrics than other idol songs did: their first single was titled “Seeraa Fuku o Nugasanaide” (“Don’t Take Off My Sailor Suit”) and it contained lyrics such as “Tomodachi yori hayaku / ecchi o shitai kedo…” (“I want to have sex before all my friends, but…”) CITATION Ash10 \p 39 \l 1033 (Ashcraft and Ueda 39). Onyanko Club also had a hit TV show, Yuuyake Nyan Nyan, and they were also the first idol group to “graduate” older members and hold auditions for new members to replace them, keeping the group fresh CITATION Ash10 \p 42 \l 1033 (Ashcraft and Ueda 42). Despite their popularity, though, Onyanko Club only lasted for two and a half years after debuting, holding their final concert in September 1987CITATION Ash10 \p 43 \l 1033 (Ashcraft and Ueda 43).In the early to mid-1990s, with the burst of the Japanese bubble economy, idols, particularly female idols, experienced a slump in popularity. The culture columnist Nakamori Akio explained this:“The times seek idols, and idols lead the times. Since idols symbolize the healthy growth of young people, and because they are personal manifestations of the shared public desire for growth, they symbolize national growth itself. The fact that idols are socially demanded implies that there is a shared national vision toward growth, and where there is such a vision, idols will continue to appear. This mutual relationship is the key. The current "idol recession" in Japan tells me that the Japanese have lost that vision. I believe the fading of idols reflects the current economic recession, in which the people have lost the energy they once had to move forward together toward social and economic growth.” CITATION Aoy00 \p 318 \l 1033 (Aoyagi 318). During this time, “post-idol” singers such as Amuro Namie, who had a more mature and sensual imageCITATION Aoy00 \p 318 \l 1033 (Aoyagi 318), became huge stars and Amuro in particular was hugely popular among young girls, who imitated her fashion style CITATION Jun07 \p 54 \l 1033 (Jung 54). During this time, the male idol group SMAP (an acronym for Sports Music Assemble People), managed by Johnny & Associates, debuted and rose in popularity even during the “idol recession.” Along with singing, the five members of SMAP also acted in TV dramas and appeared on and hosted many variety shows, and in 1995, the members could be seen on ten regularly scheduled music and variety shows CITATION Dar04 \p 358 \l 1033 (Darling-Wolf 358). One member, Kimura Takuya, was the heartthrob of the group and was named “the most desirable man in Japan” for many yearsCITATION Jun07 \p 54 \l 1033 (Jung 54). SMAP continues to be popular today and are still a significant presence in the Japanese mediaCITATION Dar04 \p 358 \l 1033 (Darling-Wolf 358). Idols of the 90s and early 2000s: SMAP (left) and Morning Musume circa 2001 (right).In the late 1990s, the large-scale female idol group concept that had started with Onyanko Club in the 80s became popular again with Morning Musume (Morning Girls). Morning Musume was formed in 1997, on the audition show ASAYAN that aired on TV Tokyo. It started when Tsunku, the vocalist of the band Sharan Q, held auditions on ASAYAN to look for a female vocalist. He found one, but also chose to make another group out of the five runners-up CITATION Ash10 \p 44 \l 1033 (Ashcraft and Ueda 44). In order to officially debut as a group, the 5 girls had to sell 50,000 copies of their first single on the streets in only 5 days. ASAYAN followed their progress and the public became very interested in seeing if they would succeed or not. In the end, they managed to sell all 50,000 copies CITATION Ash10 \p 44 \l 1033 (Ashcraft and Ueda 44) and officially debuted in 1998. Morning Musume soon expanded, going from 5 members in 1998 to 16 members in 2003CITATION Ash10 \p 44 \l 1033 (Ashcraft and Ueda 44), and adopted a “graduation” system similar to Onyanko Club’s. In 1999, their single “Love Machine” became a huge hit that sold 1,760,000 copies and ranked number one on the Oricon chart. Having looked at Japanese idols, let’s look at Korean idol history. Until the 1980s, South Korea’s popular music (kayo in Korean) scene was dominated by ballad singers and a style of music known as “trot” or “ppongjak” CITATION Shi08 \p 35 \l 1033 (Shim 35). “Trot” arose in the 1930s, while Korea was under Japanese colonial rule, and bares close resemblance to Japanese enka music CITATION Jun07 \p 58 \l 1033 (Jung 58). Trot featured “ornamented and openly emotional singing, pentatonic scales, with simple two- or three- chord Western harmonic accompaniment on Western band instruments, usually with a strong bass pattern” CITATION Jun07 \p 58 \l 1033 (Jung 58). In the 1980s, KBS and MBC, the two major broadcast networks in Korea, controlled every aspect of music distribution. There was no one standard record sales chart, just the ones on KBS and MBC’s music shows, and musicians had to perform with the networks’ studio bands and dancers, which greatly limited the diversity of music styles CITATION Shi08 \p 35 \l 1033 (Shim 35). Furthermore, the Korean government had strict censorship laws for song lyrics, and so most Korean songs were simple love songs and sappy ballads CITATION Jun07 \p 65 \l 1033 (Jung 65). Songs could also be banned by the government solely on perceived Japanese influence, which led to periodic banning of trot songs CITATION Jun07 \p 66 \l 1033 (Jung 66). Japanese music and other cultural products were also banned in Korea (a ban that lasted until 1998), but pirated tapes of popular Japanese singers became popular on the black market CITATION Jun07 \p 112 \l 1033 (Jung 112).After South Korea’s democratic reforms in the late 80s, the country became more exposed to the outside world, which transformed the local music market. Korean music fans came to know more about global music trends, and more and more singers adopted foreign music stylesCITATION Shi08 \p 36 \l 1033 (Shim 36). In 1992, the group Seo Taiji and Boys debuted with the song “I Know,” which was the first rap song in Korea. Seo Taiji and Boys’ mix of rap, soul, rock and roll, and dance genres was revolutionary for the Korean music industry and is the foundation of the current “K-pop” sound CITATION Shi08 \p 37 \l 1033 (Shim 37). Their lyrics were also not just love songs, they also had strong social messages that criticized the education system and taunted adultsCITATION Shi08 \p 37 \l 1033 (Shim 37). They were also the first group not to rely on the TV networks; they decided for themselves when they would go on shows and had their own music studio CITATION Shi08 \p 37 \l 1033 (Shim 37).As the networks’ influence ended, record labels and management agencies became more powerful in the Korean music industry. The first big K-pop idol group agency was SM Entertainment, founded by Lee Soo-Man in 1989 CITATION Shi08 \p 38 \l 1033 (Shim 38). Before creating their first idol group, H.O.T, Lee surveyed teenage girls to find out what they wanted in an idol. Afterwards he held an audition, selecting young men based on their looks as well as their singing and dancing skills. After two years of training in singing and dancing, H.O.T debuted in 1996 to great success – between 1996 and 2001, H.O.T sold more than 10 million CDs CITATION Shi08 \p 38 \l 1033 (Shim 38). After this success, a girl group called S.E.S followed, as well as a solo female singer, BoACITATION Shi08 \p 38 \l 1033 (Shim 38). In the wake of SM’s successes, other management agencies such as JYP Entertainment and YG Entertainment started producing their own popular idols.Three early K-pop idol successes: H.O.T, S.E.S and BoA (from left to right)Korean entertainment such as movies and TV dramas began to become popular in other Asian countries starting in 1997, when the Korean drama What is Love All About? became a huge hit in China CITATION Shi08 \p 28 \l 1033 (Shim 28). As more “K-dramas” aired throughout Asia, pop music soon followed – H.O.T. topped the pop charts in China and Taiwan in 1998 and held a successful concert in Beijing in 2000 CITATION Shi08 \p 28 \l 1033 (Shim 28). The term “Korean wave” (hallyu in Korean, kanryuu in Japanese and hanliu in Mandarin Chinese), which refers to the influx of Korean entertainment into other countries, was coined around this time CITATION Shi08 \l 1033 (Shim). Korean management agencies began to develop idols that would appeal not only to Korean audiences but also to worldwide audiences. BoA is one early example, as from the beginning of her career in 2001, SM Entertainment had trained her in the Japanese language and in Japanese culture in order to debut there CITATION Par11 \p 28 \l 1033 (Park 28). Their efforts paid off, as in the following year, her first Japanese album reached number one on the Oricon chartCITATION Shi08 \p 28-29 \l 1033 (Shim 28-29) and her subsequent albums also reached the same positionCITATION Par11 \p 28 \l 1033 (Park 28).Despite BoA’s success, though, the “Korean Wave” didn’t really start up in Japan until 2003, the year that Japan’s public broadcaster NHK began airing the Korean TV drama “Winter Sonata” (Japanese title Fuyu no Sonata). After it ran on one of their satellite channels, NHK reran it again in 2004, and soon the drama became a cultural phenomenon CITATION Jun07 \p 199 \l 1033 (Jung 199). It was especially popular with middle-aged women, who were touched by the melodramatic love story and who idolized the lead actor, Bae Yong-Joon CITATION Jun07 \p 199 \l 1033 (Jung 199) CITATION Mat11 \l 1033 (Matsutani). For several years, K-dramas and movies were the main Korean content that was exported to Japan. CITATION Mat11 \l 1033 (Matsutani) Some other K-pop stars tried to start up careers in Japan as well, but did not achieve the same level of success that BoA did, except among the niche audience of middle-aged women who were already into K-dramas. However, in 2008, the boy group Tohoshinki (Korean name Dong Bang Shin Ki) started to become popular among younger generations as well when they switched to doing more dance songs rather than the ballads they had been singing before in Japan CITATION Mat11 \l 1033 (Matsutani). From 2008 up to now (2011), K-pop has become a huge part of the Korean Wave in Japan, with other Korean idol groups such as Girls’ Generation and KARA debuting there and becoming successful CITATION Par11 \p 28 \l 1033 (Park 28). In October 2010, Girls’ Generation became the first foreign girl group to rank number one on the Oricon chart in 30 yearsCITATION Par11 \p 28 \l 1033 (Park 28) while a few months earlier, in August, KARA’s debut single “Mister” debuted at number five, and their subsequent singles were also all in the top 5 CITATION Ori111 \l 1033 (Oricon). One reason many Korean idol groups are debuting in Japan now is because the Japanese music industry is much larger. According to the IFPI, Japan had the world’s second-largest music market in 2008, with a 22% global share, while South Korea’s music industry only ranks at #18, with a 1% shareCITATION Mat11 \t \l 1033 (Matsutani), thus Korean idol agencies can earn more money by sending their idols to perform in Japan than if they just kept them in Korea. When comparing J-pop idols and K-pop idols, one difference that people notice is that the J-pop idols feel less “polished.” Most J-pop idols do not have perfect singing or dancing talent, and most of them have “fairly standard” images, in order to be more relatable to the audience CITATION Aoy00 \p 311 \l 1033 (Aoyagi 311). This characteristic of Japanese idols is referred to as being “life-sized” (toushindai). As Hiroshi Aoyagi states:“Playing on young people's social needs, Japan's life?sized pop idols are produced and marketed as personifiers of a typical "girl or boy next door," chosen to become "lucky stars" and to represent their generation. Sociologist Hiroshi Ogawa calls them "quasi?companions" (gijiteki?nakama), who provide their teenage followers with a virtual sense of intimacy. Ogawa contends that, although this companionship is understood to be artificial and impervious, and thus realized only in fantasy, the intimacy it evokes can be as strong as, or even stronger than, that shared among school friends.” CITATION Aoy00 \p 311 \l 1033 (Aoyagi 311). The appeal of J-pop idols for fans is being able to see an awkward but cute young woman or man become a star, and to cheer him or her on CITATION Ash10 \p 38 \l 1033 (Ashcraft and Ueda 38). This was a big reason for the success of Onyanko Club in the 1980s CITATION Ash10 \p 41-42 \l 1033 (Ashcraft and Ueda 41-42), as well as the success of SMAPCITATION Dar04 \p 359 \l 1033 (Darling-Wolf 359), but probably the ultimate example of this type of idol group today is AKB48.AKB48 was formed in 2005 by Akimoto Yasushi, who also produced Onyanko Club CITATION Ash10 \p 32 \l 1033 (Ashcraft and Ueda 32). Their concept is “idols you can go and meet” (ai ni ikeru aidoru), and so they have a theater in the Akihabara district of Tokyo (what the “AKB” stands for) where daily live performances are held CITATION Ash10 \p 33 \l 1033 (Ashcraft and Ueda 33). AKB48’s member count is larger than Onyanko Club or Morning Musume ever were – they currently have 59 full-time members, who are split up into four teams, Team A, Team K, Team B, and Team 4 (which was introduced this year). If one counts the “research students” (kenkyuusei), of which there are 33, that increases to 92 members in total. Like Onyanko Club and Morning Musume, they also graduate membersCITATION Ash10 \p 49 \l 1033 (Ashcraft and Ueda 49). For fans, the appeal of so many members is that they all have different types of personality, and so one can find at least one member to identify with and supportCITATION Ash10 \p 33-34 \l 1033 (Ashcraft and Ueda 33-34).As current Team K member Nakatsuka Tomomi says, “the big difference between AKB48 and other mainstream idol groups is the interaction with the fans” CITATION Ash10 \p 34 \l 1033 (Ashcraft and Ueda 34). The group often holds handshake events with fans (akushu-kai), and copies of their latest singles can come with a ticket to a handshake event. Thousands of fans come to these events CITATION Ash10 \p 32 \l 1033 (Ashcraft and Ueda 32). Since there are so many members it would be impossible to have them all on every single, and so in 2009, AKB48 began holding “general elections” where fans vote for which members will appear on the singles, with those ranking high in the polls getting more media exposure CITATION Mat10 \t \l 1033 (Matsutani). Last year, Team K member Oshima Yuko became the #1 member (taking over from Team A member Maeda Atsuko the year before and became the center of the group when making public appearancesCITATION Mat10 \t \l 1033 (Matsutani), while this year, Maeda Atsuko regained her #1 position. The elections and other stunts, such as this summer’s “CGI member” stunt where the features of 6 of the most popular members of AKB48 were combined to create a fake kenkyuusei called Eguchi Aimi for an ice cream commercial, help keep the group in the news and attract more people to them. AKB48 started out with mostly otaku fans, as expected from an Akihabara-based groupCITATION Ash10 \p 32 \l 1033 (Ashcraft and Ueda 32), but their popularity has since spread beyond otaku and AKB48 members can be seen all the time on TV shows, in movies and in magazines CITATION Mat10 \t \l 1033 (Matsutani). In 2010 and 2011 they have had several singles selling over a million copies, and now hold the Oricon record for most million-selling singles by a female artist CITATION Ori11 \l 1033 (Oricon). With the success of AKB48, other “48” groups such as SKE48 (located in the Sakae district of Nagoya), NMB48 (in the Namba district of Osaka), and SDN48 (a spinoff group with all members 18 and over, who perform at the AKB48 theater on Saturday nights) were formed, and Akimoto plans to promote the franchise overseas as wellCITATION Mat10 \t \l 1033 (Matsutani). AKB48 in a promotional picture for their single “Namida Sapuraizu” (“Tearful Surprise”)In contrast with the “life-sized” and cute image portrayed by Japanese idol groups like AKB48, Korean idol groups portray a more mature, “whole” image CITATION Mat11 \t \l 1033 (Matsutani). Japanese fans of K-pop idols are attracted to them for their dancing and singing skills and their sex appealCITATION Mat11 \t \l 1033 (Matsutani), as well as how they change their image for each new release, as Judy Park points out:“In Korea, singers promote an album for a certain period of time, and especially promote a certain song, and then another song, in order. The period when they are “working” is very calculated and set, and once they stop doing their rounds on various types of media including TV, radio and magazines, they take some time off and work on the next album. Singers can frequently be heard saying “when I was actively working” or “when I was taking time off.” Singers in other countries sometimes say they took time off after a big event like a tour, but they are generally considered to be “working singers” full time. However, the period when singers perform and are on TV, and when they are not, are strictly considered separate in Korea. When they do “work,” they have a certain choreography routine, hairstyles, makeup and clothing style set for each song they sing on stage…For example, Girls’ Generation wore short, sexy versions of a military uniform and created a unique dance focusing on leg movements for their song “Tell Me Your Wish,” but changed into all black leather and satin outfits with heavy eye makeup and a dance that included running movements for the song “Run.” Each time they go on stage to sing these songs, they wear the same kind of outfit, hair and makeup, and dance and move in exactly the same way. Not one member moves in another direction or dances in a different way. This change of costume for each song makes each song fresh, and even knowing what the look and dance will be for a certain song becomes fun. Experts say this is an aspect that contributes to the popularity of Korean singers overseas.”CITATION Par11 \p 29-30 \l 1033 (Park 29-30)Girls’ Generation wearing colorful outfits in the music video for their song “Gee” and military-style uniforms for their next song, “Genie”In conclusion, J-pop idols and K-pop idols both have their distinct appeal – the “life-sized,” “girl next door” images of J-pop idols attract audiences who want to cheer on someone just like them as they make it into stardom, while the more “polished” image of K-pop idols attract audiences with their singing, dancing and fashion. Even with the historical conflicts between Japan and Korea, and the political controversies stemming from those conflicts that erupt between the two countries CITATION Lee06 \p 236 \l 1033 (Lee 236), K-pop appeals to Japanese people who are looking for something more from their idols.Works Cited BIBLIOGRAPHY Aoyagi, Hiroshi. "Pop Idols and the Asian Identity." Japan Pop! Inside the World of Japanese Popular Culture. Ed. Timothy J. Craig. Armonk: M.E. Sharpe, 2000. 309-326.Ashcraft, Brian and Shoko Ueda. Japanese Schoolgirl Confidential. Kodansha International, 2010.Cogan, Brian and Gina. "Gender and Authenticity in Japanese Popular Music: 1980–2000." Popular Music and Society 29.1 (2006): 69-90.Darling-Wolf, Fabienne. "SMAP, Sex, and Masculinity: Constructing the Perfect Female Fantasy in Japanese Popular Music." Popular Music and Society 27.3 (2004): 357-370.Jung, Eun-Young. "Transnational Cultural Traffic In Northeast Asia: The "Presence" of Japan in Korea's Popular Music Culture." University of Pittsburgh, 2007.Lee, Jamie Shinhee. "Crossing and Crossers in East Asian Pop Music: Korea and Japan." World Englishes 25.2 (2006): 235-250.Matsutani, Minoru. "Girl idol group about mass exposure, fans." 24 August 2010. The Japan Times Online. 14 December 2011 <;.—. "K-pop Striking Chord with the Young." 30 August 2011. The Japan Times Online. 13 December 2011 <, Yasser. "Miso Soup for the Ears: Contemporary Japanese Popular Music and its Relation to the Genres Familiar to the Anglophonic Audience." Popular Music and Society 31.1 (2008): 113-123.Oricon. "AKB48、初の4作連続“初週ミリオン”　今年全5曲が100万枚突破の快挙 ." 13 December 2011. Oricon Style. 13 December 2011 <;.—. "KARA、海外女性歌手史上初の快挙　シングル2作連続初週10万枚突破." 5 July 2011. Oricon Style. 13 December 2011 <, Judy. "The Aesthetic Style of Korean Singers in Japan: A Review of Hallyu from the Perspective of Fashion." International Journal of Business and Social Science 2.19 (2011): 23-34.Shim, Doobo. "Hybridity and the Rise of Korean Popular Culture in Asia." Media, Culture & Society 28.25 (2008): 25-44. ................
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