Human Body Systems Graphic Organizer



Measuring Lung Capacity

The amount of air that you move in and out of your lungs while breathing normally is called TIDAL VOLUME. This amount of air provides enough oxygen for a person who is resting. It is possible to inhale and exhale more forcefully - the maximum amount of air moved in and out of the lungs is called the VITAL CAPACITY. In this activity, you will be measuring the vital capacity and the tidal volume of your own lungs, this actual number can then be compared with a number derived from an equation that measures vital capacity. In effect, you are measuring an actual number, based on laboratory measurements, to a theoretical number, based on an equation. If you have any breathing difficulties (asthma or other condition), you should not participate in this activity, instead only take the data on your lab partner or group.

Materials - Balloons, metric ruler, meter stick, bathroom scale (optional)

How to Take Measurements with a Balloon

1. Measuring Tidal Volume -- Stretch a round balloon several times to stretch it out. Inhale normally and then exhale normally into the balloon. Do not force your breathing. Pinch the end of the balloon and measure its diameter. Repeat this so that you have 3 total measurements and can take the average and record in the data table.

2. Measuring Vital Capacity - Repeat the procedure, only this time inhale as much air as you can and exhale forcefully. Record three measurements in the data table.

3. Convert the diameters to a volume using the graph and record this in your table.

[pic]

4. Estimated Vital Capacity

Research has shown that the capacity of a person's lungs is proportional to the surface area of his or her body. To find the surface area, you will need to know your height and weight. There are a couple of different ways to calculate your body surface area mathematically. Either use the equation below or go to a website that has an automatic calculator. (A google search on "body surface area calculator will yield many pages that have these calculators)

Once you have calculated your surface area, a second equation will calculate your estimated vital capacity.

Males: SA x 2500

Females SA x 2000

 

DATA TABLE

| |Tidal Volume |Vital Capacity |Estimated Vital Capacity |

| |Balloon |Volume |Balloon |Volume |Height (cm) |

| |Diameter |(from graph) |Diameter |(from graph) |  |

| | | | | | |

| | | | | |Mass (kg) |

| | | | | |  |

| | | | | | |

| | | | | |Surface Area |

| | | | | |  |

| | | | | | |

| | | | | |Vital Capacity |

| | | | | |  |

| | | | | | |

|Trial |[pic] |[pic] |[pic] |[pic] | |

|1 |[pic] |[pic] |[pic] |[pic] | |

|2 |[pic] |[pic] |[pic] |[pic] | |

|3 |[pic] |[pic] |[pic] |[pic] | |

|Average |[pic] |[pic] |[pic] |[pic] | |

 

ANALYSIS

1. Why is it important to measure tidal volume and vital capacity three times and then get an average?

 

2. Compare your data to other members of the class. How can you account for differences?

 

3. How does your measured vital capacity compare to the vital capacity you estimated using the formula? Which do you think is more accurate and why?

 

4. How might an athlete's vital capacity compare to a non-athlete? Explain your reasoning.

 

APPLICATION

1. Examine the data table of a person who entered into a training program. This person's vital capacity was measured over a 60 day period. Use the data to construct a graph

|DATA |GRAPH |

|Day of Training |  |

|Vital Capacity |  |

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|0 |  |

|4800 |  |

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|10 |  |

|4840 |  |

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|20 |  |

|4890 |  |

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|30 |  |

|4930 |  |

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|40 |  |

|4980 |  |

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|50 |  |

|5180 |  |

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|60 |  |

|5260 |  |

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2. What happened to the person's vital capacity over the course of the training period?

 

3. What probably caused the change?

 

4. How might vital capacity be important to a musician?

Lab: Measuring the Monstrous Digestive System Name____________________________Hr__

Background:

You feel hungry because your brain receives signals that your cells need energy. But eating is only the beginning of the story. You body mush change a meal into substances that you can use. Your digestive system is a group of organs that work together to digest food so that it can be used by the body.

Look at the picture to the right of your digestive system. This system contains many parts & many of the parts are folded up inside your body. If you were to take your digestive system out of your body and lay it out flat, it would surprise you how long it is. In this lab you will make models of your own digestive system by measuring & cutting yarn to represent lengths of different parts of the system, and knotting the pieces of yarn together to from one long string.

Materials: metersticks, yarn (blue, red, green, yellow, purple), scissors, digestive system diagram

Procedure:

__1) Digestion begins in the mouth, so measure and cut a piece of red yarn from the front to the back of the mouth. (You can do this by stretching the yarn from the front of your lips to the back of your jaw along your cheek).

__2) Record this length in centimeters (cm) in the data table on the next page.

__3) The esophagus is a tube that connects the mouth and stomach. Measure & cut a piece of blue yarn the length of the esophagus. (Measure from your mouth to just below your rib cage). Tie the blue esophagus to the red mouth.

__4) Record the length of this blue string in centimeters (cm) in the data table on the next page.

__5) In the stomach, gastric juices break down solid food into a liquid. Find the length of the stomach by spreading the fingers of your hand and measuring the span from the thumb to the little finger. Measure and cut a piece of green yearn to match this length. Tie the green stomach to the blue esophagus.

__6) Record the length of this green string in centimeters (cm) in the data table on the next page.

__7) The small intestine is the longest part of the digestive system. It is folded up inside of you so it fits. Food is further digested and absorbed here. Measure your heights and multiply it by four. Use yellow yarn to represent the length of the small intestine. Tie the yellow small intestine to the green stomach.

__8) Record the length of this yellow string in centimeters (cm) in the data table on the next page.

__9) Last is the large intestine. It is much wider than the small intestine but much shorter. It is about as tall as you are. Undigested material form the small intestine moves to the large intestine before it leaves your body. Use purple yarn to represent the length of your large intestine. Then ties the purple large intesting to the yellow small intestine.

__10) Record the length of this purple string in centimeters (cm) in the data table on the next page.

__11) Label each segment of your digestive system model with masking tape like your teacher showed you.

|DIGESTIVE ORGAN |LENGTH (CM) |

| | |

|Mouth | |

| | |

|Esophagus | |

| | |

|Stomach | |

| | |

|Small Intestine | |

| | |

|Large Intestine | |

Follow-up Questions:

1) What is the TOTAL LENGTH of your digestive system? ______________________ cm

2) Why do you think your digestive system is so long? __________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________________

2) Read back through the procedure. What are the jobs of the following digestive organs?

|DIGESTIVE ORGAN |FUNTION (JOB) |

| | |

|Mouth | |

| | |

|Esophagus | |

| | |

|Stomach | |

| | |

|Small Intestine | |

| | |

|Large Intestine | |

Observing Muscle Fatigue

Your muscles need Glycogen (muscle sugar) in order to function. When the glycogen is broken down into energy for the muscles a waste product called lactic acid is produced. A buildup of lactic acid decreases the muscles’ ability to contract and Muscle Fatigue sets in.

Objective: To explore muscular contraction and the resulting fatigue that follows and to pinpoint the cause of that fatigue

After reading the directions, make a hypothesis about what will happen with regards to muscle fatigue and muscle contraction.

Hypothesis:

Directions:

1. Hold the ends of the clothespin between the thumb and index finger of your right hand. Practice opening the clothespin by squeezing the ends together and releasing the pressure to allow the pin to close.

2. Using the second hand of the clock to keep time, count and record the number of times you can open and close the clothespin in one minute. Be sure to open and close the pin COMPLETELY between each repetition.

3. Without taking a break between trials, repeat the one-minute exercises until you have recorded a total of TEN trials. Record below

|Trial # |Right |Left |

|1 | | |

|2 | | |

|3 | | |

|4 | | |

|5 | | |

|6 | | |

|7 | | |

|8 | | |

|9 | | |

|10 | | |

4. Repeat steps 1-3 using your left hand. DO NOT ALTERNATE. You must do all of the right hand, then all of the left hand.

5. Return the clothespin to your right hand and repeat the one-minute exercise. Record the number of times you were able to open and close the clothespin ___________.

Questions:

1. How did the number of successful openings change for either hand as you completed more and more trials? Why do you think this happened?

2. Looking at the overall number of openings and at the endurance of your finger muscles, can you see the difference between your dominant hand and the opposite hand? Why would this factor make a difference in your results?

3. Describe the results from step 5 after the “rest period” of testing your left hand. Why were you able to complete more openings than in trial 10 of step 3?

4. Now, represent your data graphically using the graph paper provided. What kind of graph will you use? Remember, we are trying to show a trend.

Conclusion: Write a detailed conclusion of what is happening in this lab with regards to muscle fatigue.

Do this:

Hold a book in each hand. Raise one arm straight out parallel to the ground and the other arm down at your side.

Compare the feeling in each arm. Write your observations below.

Do this:

Sit against the wall with your knees bent at a 900 angle. Hold this position for as long as it takes to feel muscle fatigue.

(If it’s been more than 3 minutes you are not doing it right). Write your observations below.

Do this:

1. Hold a popsicle stick in front of you , parallel to the table top.

2. Place a bent paper clip on the stick.

3. Raise the stick until the legs of the paper clip just touch he table.

4. The top of the paper clip should rest on the stick.

5. Hold the stick as steady as you can for about 30 seconds and observe.

6. Grip the stick tighter and repeat step 5.

Write your observations below.

Nervous System Lab

Introduction: The human nervous system is composed of the brain and spinal cord (Central Nervous System, CNS) and the nerves which branch out from the CNS, the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS). Sensory neurons of the PNS carry information to the CNS. Signals from the brain are carried to motor neurons (PNS), which carry out responses by muscles.

In this lab, you will be comparing the rate at which sensory neurons, working through the brain, can elicit responses via motor neurons. We will also be mapping out the density of sensory neurons on the skin.

Purpose: To identify differences in the nervous system based on reaction response time and nerve density.

Part 1: Reaction time

Part A – Arm and shoulder. Each group will be equipped with a meter stick. Select a group member, and use the same person for ALL of the following tests in Part 1.

Have the group member stand upright, with their arms extended straight out in front of the body, palms of the hands facing each other. The palms should be 10 cm apart. Place the meter stick exactly in the middle of the palms, with the 50 cm mark at the TOP of the index finger. The meter stick should be oriented so that “0” end is down and the “100” end is up.

Once you are organized, another group member will hold the top of the stick, and then let go. The meter stick’s fall should be stopped by bringing the arms together to stock the fall of the meter stick. Record the distance that the stick fell by looking at the measurement lines on the meter stick that align with the index fingers as the palms hold the stick.

Final position cm - 50.0 cm = Distance traveled

Repeat this process three more times, recording your data in the table you have on your lab.

Part B – Thumb and Index finger. Have the group member stand upright, with their right arm extended straight out in front of the body, with the thumb and forefinger separated by 10 cm. As before, place the meter stick at the 50 cm mark between the finger and thumb, with the 50 cm mark aligned with the top of the index finger. Release the stick, and record the distance that the meter stick falls before the student catches it.

|Repeat this process three more times, recording your data in the table. |

|Fall Distance in centimeters (cm) |

| | Trial #1 |Trial #2 |Trial #3 |Trial #4 |Average |

| Part A – | | | | | |

|Arms and | | | | | |

|shoulder | | | | | |

| | | | | | |

| Part B – | | | | | |

|Thumb and | | | | | |

|forefinger | | | | | |

| | | | | | |

| | | | | | |

Nervous System Tests

Cerebellum: Function = balance and coordination

1) Knee Flexion.

a. Stand straight; hold onto table with one hand.

b. Slowly bend knee as far as possible, so foot lifts up behind you; hold this position.

c. Now, use one fingertip to hold onto the table.

d. Next, no hands.

e. Finally, with your eyes closed if you are steady. Why do you think closing your eyes makes this more difficult?

2) Hip Extension

a. Stand 12-18 inches from table

b. Bend at hips; hold onto table

c. Slowly lift one leg backwards (like an ice skater); hold this position

d. Now hold onto the table with one fingertip, then no hands, Finally with eyes closed!

Parietal Lobe (part of the cerebral cortex) Function = Sensory processes (touch); attention and language

1) Cutaneous (Skin) Sensations

a. Have your partner rest comfortably with his/her eyes closed and both forearms resting on the table. One arm should have the hand up, the other with hand facing down. Hair or clothing from the back of the neck should be pinned back so the surface of the neck is exposed. Do not allow your partner to open his/her eyes at any time during this part of the lab!

b. Perform the tests with the caliper in a random order. Measure the distance between the points, when your partner indicates he/she can feel only one stimulus instead of two.

Location Two-Point Distance (mm)

Mid-Foream

Tip of Pointer Finger

Tip of Little Finger

Palm of Hand

Back of Hand

Back of Neck

Cheeks

Forehead

Which areas of the skin are most sensitive to the two-point discrimination test? _______________________

Which areas of the skin are least sensitive to the test? ________________________________________

Temporal Lobe (part of the cerebral cortex) Function = auditory perception and speech

1) Tongue Twisters

* Six sick slick slim sycamore saplings. * Sam’s shop stocks short spotted socks.

* A box of biscuits, a batch of mixed biscuits. * Lesser leather never weathered wetter weather better.

* Red lorry, yellow lorry, red lorry, yellow lorry. * Fat frogs flying past fast.

· Six thick thistle sticks. Six thick thistles stick. * We surely shall see the sun shine soon.

· Toy boat. Toy boat. Toy boat. * Ed had edited it.

· What time does the wristwatch strap shop shut? * Are our oars oak?

Which tongue twister was the most difficult? ___________________ Why? _________________________

Occipital lobe: Function = Vision

Two eyes are better than one, especially when it comes to depth perception. Depth perception is the ability to judge objects that are nearer or farther than others. To demonstrate the difference of using one eye versus two to judge depth complete the following:

1. Depth Perception

a) Hold the ends of a pencil/pen in each hand, hold them vertically or horizontally facing each other

at arms length from your body.

b) Now, close one eye and try to touch the ends of the pencils together

c) Now try with two eyes: it should be much easier

It is easier with two eyes because each eye looks at the image from a different angle.

2. Why do you need two eyes?

a) With your arms fully extended, hold a plastic drinking straw in one hand and a pipe cleaner in the other.

b. With both eyes open, try to insert the pipe cleaner into the straw.

c. Now close your right eye. Try to insert the pipe cleaner into the straw. Repeat step c, but this time close your left eye instead.

How does closing one eye affect the ability to judge distances? ____________________________________

Frontal Lobe: Function = Decision making, problem solving and planning

If you were asked to design a test to stimulate the frontal lobe, what would you do? ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Brain Stem: Function = Vital center (respiration, regulation of heart rhythms…)

Why didn’t we test this in lab? __________________________________________________________________________

Testing your Cranial Nerves

You have 12 pairs of Cranial Nerves.

Olfactory Nerve (1): This nerve carries smell messages from the nose to the brain.

Test: With your eyes closed, smell the items on the table one at a time. Can you identify the item? Was the odor strong, pleasant, or neutral? Which nostril did you use to identify the item?

Sample Identity of item Strong Pleasant Neutral Nostril used

A

B

C

D

E

Which specific lobe of the brain does the olfactory nerve (1) send information to? ______________________

Optic Nerve (II): This nerve (or brain tract) carries sight messages from the retina of the eye to the brain.

Test: Is this picture moving?

What specific lobe(s) does optic nerve (II) send information to? __________________________________

Oculomotor Nerve (III), Trochlear Nerve (IV), Abducens Nerve (VI): These nerves carry movement messages from the brain to the muscles controlling eyeball movement.

Test: Have your partner follow your finger with his/her eyes.

If you were to damage any of these three nerves, what activities would you have difficulty performing?

___________________________________________________________________________

Trigeminal Nerve (V): This nerve carries sensory information from the face to the brain, and movement (motor) messages from the brain to the muscles in the face.

Test: To test the sensory part of this nerve, lightly touch various parts of your face with your finger. To test the motor part of this nerve, close your jaws as if you were biting down on a piece of gum.

Which lobe(s) does trigeminal nerve (V) send information to? ______________________________________

Facial Nerve (VII): This nerve carries messages from the brain to the muscles controlling facial expression.

Test: To test the motor part of this nerve, make a funny face. To test the sensory part of this nerve, shake some sugar into your hand and taste it with the tip of your tongue.

If you were to damage you facial nerve (VII), what activities would you have a difficult time doing?

_____________________________________________________________________

Vestibulocochlear Nerve (VIII): Carries sound and movement (vestibular) messages from the inner

ear to the brain.

Test: Shake each of the film canisters on the table. Can you identify the item? Which ear did you use to hear?

A

B

C

D

Glossopharyngeal Nerve (IX) and Vagus Nerve (X): The Glossopharyngeal nerve carries messages to and from the tongue and pharynx. The vagus nerve also carries movement messages from the brain to the muscles of the pharynx and larynx. In addition, the vagus nerve carries messages that regulate heart rate, breathing, digestive activity, and blood pressure both to and from the brain.

Clinical Application: Inflammation of the glossopharyngeal nerve results in loss of sour and bitter tastes, and impaired swallowing. A complete destruction of the vagus nerve is fatal.

Test: Swallow.

Which lobe(s) do these nerves send information to? _______________________________

Spinal Accessory Nerve (XI): This nerve carries movement messages from the brain and brain stem to movement muscles in the larynx, pharynx, shoulders, head and neck.

Test: Move your head from side to side. Shrug your shoulders.

Hypoglossal Nerve (XII): This nerve carries movement messages from the brain to the tongue.

Test: Stick out your tongue and move it side to side.

If you were to damage the hypoglossal nerve (XII), what activities would you have a difficult time doing?

Digestion Lab

In this lab we are going to trace the journey of a carrot through the digestion system.

Introduction:

There are three steps in digestion:

▪ mechanical digestion

▪ chemical digestion

▪ absorption.

1. Mechanical digestion is the first step where food is mechanically broken into smaller pieces by the teeth and strong jaws. Next, saliva mixes into the chewed food to make a soft and pasty solution that will be easier to swallow. This solution is the beginning of chemical digestion.

2. Chemical digestion is the process in which different enzymes and chemicals are introduced in order for the digestive system to break-down sugars, proteins and to emulsify (change into smaller drops) fats.

3. The last stage is absorption. This is when the small intestine actually passes the nutrients through its lining into the bloodstream.

The wall of the small intestine is special. On its inner wall are small fingerlike structures called "villi", which increase the surface area by their long thin shape. Each villus (singular for villi) is formed of a single layer of cells. Some substances, like water, can pass easily through the thin one cell wall, others must first attach to a specialized carrier molecule that can pull them through. Inside the each villus is a thin , one-cell thick capillary. Capillaries are the smallest of our blood vessels, some are so small that they only let the blood cells travel in single file! This is where the nutrients from our breakfast, lunch, or dinner enter the bloodstream. From here, the blood in the capillaries carries these nutrients back to the heart in veins in order to get pumped to the lungs for more oxygen.

Procedure:

1. Each member of the group needs to read the introduction section

2. Use the following word bank to label the diagram below

Esophagus gall bladder large intestine liver mouth pancreas rectum small intestine stomach

3. Describe the order your group proposes the carrot will take as it travels through the labeled parts in the box below.

4. Now you will do a physical simulation of the carrot’s journey.

Safety Precautions

Avoid chemical contact with eyes and skin, gloves and safety lenses should be worn when handling alcohol. Simmering alcohol may cause nasal irritation, avoid inhaling direct fumes.

5. Step 1 of digestion is mechanical digestion. To simulate “chewing” use the plastic knife to chop the carrot into small pieces (about the size of a grain of rice or smaller)

6. Step 2 starts the chemical digestion of the food by enzymes in the saliva. It is then swallowed and carried down to the stomach. To simulate this you will place your chopped carrot into the small beaker at your table.

7. When the food is in the stomach, acid and enzymes break the food into smaller molecules. To simulate this, add alcohol into the beaker until it just covers the top of the carrot.

8. Fill approximately ¼ of the large beaker with tap water.

9. Carefully place the small beaker containing the carrot pieces and alcohol into the large beaker. (Caution: do not let the water overflow into the carrot /alcohol beaker- if it looks like it is going to do this as you are lowering the small beaker, remove it, pour out a little water into the sink then try again)

10. Place the large beaker on the hot plate and turn on the heat.

11. The alcohol will begin to boil before the water. When it does, lower the heat and allow the alcohol to simmer for 15 minutes, without letting the water come to a boil.

12. Carefully observe any changes in the carrot/alcohol mixture, as you will be writing a summary of your observations at the end of the lab.

13. After simmering, carefully remove from heat and place one tip of the coffee filter strip into the mixture, touching the top of the carrots.

14. What do you think the coffee filter represents? ____________________________________

____________________________________________________________________________

15. Describe in detail your observations, and discuss your group’s results in the space below.

Integumentary system

[pic]

Integumentary System

Function :

Interactions with 2 other systems:

Major parts/organs:

| |This is the outermost layer of the skin that contains four separate layers of epithelial tissue. The outer most layer |

|Epidermis |is the stratum corneum that is about 2 to 30 cells thick. |

| |The dermis lies immediately after the epidermis. The dermis consists of its own blood supply and thus contains many |

| |complex structures. The sweat glands are present in this layer that collect waters and waste products from the blood |

| |stream. This waste is excreted from the pores in the epidermis along with the water in form of sweat. The hair roots |

|Dermis |are also present in this layer that help in the growth of hair. When the hair reaches outside the epidermis, the cells |

| |are dead. |

| |The hair extends to the surface from the hair roots or hair bulbs present in the dermis. The functions of the hair |

| |include protection and sensation to touch. Hair is made up of dead, keratinized cells that are bound together with the |

| |extracellular proteins. Each hair is divided into hair shaft that is the superficial layer and the root that is in the |

| |dermis. Hair follicle is the structure that surrounds the hair root. The oil glands present around the hair follicles |

|Hair |help keep the hair and the surrounding skin moist. It also acts as a protective organ involved in temperature |

| |regulation. |

|Melanin |It is a substance that gives the skin and hair its natural color. |

| |Sweat glands have an opening through the skin pores, and they help in excretion of water and electrolytes. Eccrine |

|Sweat glands |sweat glands are found all over the body whereas apocrine sweat glands are present in armpits and groin. Eccrine glands|

| |are involved in the cooling mechanism of thermoregulation whereas, apocrine glands are involved in the secretion of |

| |chemicals and pheromones. |

| |A variety of skin structures that secrete oily or greasy substances of various functions. In mammals, sebaceous glands |

|Oil glands |provide a grease that serves as a protectant and lubricant for hair and skin. |

Skeletal system

[pic]

[pic]

Skeletal System

Function :

Interactions with 2 other systems:

Major parts/organs:

| |Bones make up the framework of our bodies. We call this framework the skeleton. Bones are living, growing and changing |

|Bones |parts of our bodies. Babies' skeletons are made up from more than 300 parts, but by the time we become adults we only |

| |have 206 bones! |

| |Ligaments are similar to tendons, but they connect bone to bone and help to stabilize joints. They are composed mostly |

|Ligaments |of long, stringy collagen fibers creating short bands of tough fibrous connective tissue. |

| |A tendon connects muscle to bone. These tough, yet flexible, bands of fibrous tissue attach to the skeletal muscles |

|Tendons |that move your bones. |

|Axial skeleton |The axial skeleton forms the central axis of the body. It consists of the skull, the vertebral column, the ribs and the|

| |sternum or breastbone. |

| |The appendicular skeleton consists of the girdles and the skeleton of the limbs. The upper (anterior) limbs are |

|Appendicular skeleton |attached to the pectoral (shoulder) girdle and the lower (posterior) limbs are attached to the pelvic (hip) girdle. |

| |The site or place where 2 or more bones of the skeleton are attached to each other is called a joint. |

|Joints | |

| |Bone marrow is the soft spongy tissue that lies within the hollow interior of long bones. In adults, marrow in large |

|Marrow |bones produces new blood cells. Bone marrow forms around 4% of total body weight. |

Muscular System

[pic]

Muscular System

Function :

Interactions with 2 other systems:

Major parts/organs:

Examples:

| |Much of our internal organs is made up of smooth muscles. The smooth muscles are |urinary bladder, gallbladder, |

|Smooth |controlled by the nervous system and hormones. |arteries, and veins digestive |

| | |tract |

| |The cardiac muscles is the muscle of the heart itself. The cardiac muscle is the | heart |

|Cardiac |tissue that makes up the wall of the heart called the mydocardium. The cardiac muscle| |

| |is striated and contracts through the sliding filament method. However it is | |

| |different from other types of muscles because it forms branching fibers. Unlike the | |

| |skeletal muscles, the cardiac muscle is attached together instead of been attach to a| |

| |bone. | |

| |The skeletal muscle makes up about 40 % of an adults body weight. It has stripe-like |Arm muscles |

|Skeletal |markings, or striations. The skeletal muscle is composed of long muscle fibers. The | |

| |nervous system controls the contraction of the muscle. Many of the skeletal muscle | |

| |contractions are automatic. | |

| |We cannot consciously control the smooth muscle that is why they are often called |urinary bladder, gallbladder, |

|Involuntary muscle |involuntary muscles. |arteries, and veins digestive |

| | |tract, heart |

| |However we still can control the action of the skeletal muscle. And it is because of |Moving your arms |

|Voluntary muscle |this reason that the skeletal muscle is also called voluntary muscle. | |

| |Muscle fiber is the term used to collectively describe the many long, multi-nucelated muscle cells, or myofibers, that |

|Muscle fiber |make up skeletal muscle. |

Digestive System

[pic]

Digestive System

Function :

Interactions with 2 other systems:

Major parts/organs:

| |Digestion begins in the mouth itself. The food is broken down into smaller pieces using the teeth. Chewing makes the |

|Mouth |job easier for the digestive juices in the stomach. Spit or saliva formed in the mouth breaks down the food using |

| |enzyme ptyalin. The tongue then rolls the masticated food into a ball, known as bolus and pushes it to the posterior |

| |end of the mouth into the pharynx. |

| |The esophagus is a ten-inch long passage that is situated between the trachea and the spine and opens into the upper |

|Esophagus |end of the stomach. The esophagus function is to pass food, saliva and liquids to the stomach, which is received from |

| |the pharynx. With the help of several sphincters, lining the walls of the esophagus, contractions are formed which |

| |allows the passage of food to the stomach. |

| |The stomach is a sac-like structure and happens to be the most dilated part of the digestive system. The primary |

|Stomach |function of the stomach is to collect and break down food. The stomach contains a digestive juice called gastric juice,|

| |which digests food like meat, eggs and milk. However, gastric juice does not digest starch, sugars and fats. It also |

| |contains hydrochloric acid and pepsin enzymes. Some food remains in the stomach for the next 2-5 hours, while some of |

| |the liquids and other smaller particles get emptied fast. This partly digested food called chyme is then passed from |

| |the stomach to the small intestine. |

|Small intestines |Stretching from the stomach to the large intestine is a 20 feet long small intestine, which is coiled in the central |

| |portion of the abdominal cavity. It is in this small intestine where the most extensive part of digestion occurs. Small|

| |intestine's function is digestion and absorption of ingested food. The supportive organ; pancreas secrete digestive |

| |enzymes which help in digestion of food. Carbohydrates, lipids and proteins are broken down and digested. Moreover, the|

| |salts secreted by the liver and gallbladder work in coordination with pancreatic lipase and digest lipids. |

|Large intestines |The large intestine is a five-feet long tube, which is subdivided into different parts such as the cecum, colon and |

| |rectum. The function of the large intestine function is to absorb water and mineral salts from the digested food |

| |received from the small intestine. Moreover, the friendly bacteria present in the colon produces vitamin K, which is |

| |needed for the body's blood clotting process. The function of the rectum is to receive waste material or feces from |

| |where the sigmoid colon is stored, until it is excreted out of the body via the anus. |

| |The anus or anal opening is the last part of the digestive system. Through it, the feces are eliminated from the body |

|Rectum |finally. |

| |The pancreas is a gland organ in the digestive and endocrine system of vertebrates. It is both an endocrine gland |

|Pancreas |producing several important hormones, including insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin, as well as an exocrine gland, |

| |secreting pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes that pass to the small intestine. These enzymes help in the |

| |further breakdown of the carbohydrates, protein, and fat in the chyme. |

| |The gallbladder squeezes stored bile into the small intestine through a series of tubes called ducts. Bile helps digest|

|Gallbladder |fats, but the gallbladder itself is not essential. Removing the gallbladder in an otherwise healthy individual |

| |typically causes no observable problems with health or digestion. |

| |The liver's main job is to filter the blood coming from the digestive tract, before passing it to the rest of the body.|

|Liver |The liver also detoxifies chemicals and metabolizes drugs. As it does so, the liver secretes bile that ends up back in |

| |the intestines. The liver also makes proteins important for blood clotting and other functions. |

|Salivary glands |Salivary glands produce the saliva used to moisten your mouth, initiate digestion, and help protect your teeth from |

| |decay. |

Endocrine System

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Endocrine System

Function :

Interactions with 2 other systems:

Major parts/organs:

| |A gland is a group of cells that produces and secretes, or gives off, chemicals. A gland selects and removes |

|Gland |materials from the blood, processes them, and secretes the finished chemical product for use somewhere in the body. |

| |As the body's chemical messengers, hormones transfer information and instructions from one set of cells to another. |

|Hormones |Many different hormones move through the bloodstream, but each type of hormone is designed to affect only certain |

| |cells. |

| |The pituitary (pronounced: puh-TOO-uh-ter-ee) gland, located at the base of the brain just beneath the hypothalamus,|

|Pituitary |is considered the most important part of the endocrine system. It's often called the "master gland" because it makes|

| |hormones that control several other endocrine glands. |

| |The hypothalamus (pronounced: hi-po-THA-luh-mus), a collection of specialized cells that is located in the lower |

|Hypothalamus |central part of the brain, is the main link between the endocrine and nervous systems. Nerve cells in the |

| |hypothalamus control the pituitary gland by producing chemicals that either stimulate or suppress hormone secretions|

| |from the pituitary. |

| |Pituitary |

| |The thyroid gland produces three hormones: Thyroxine (T4), Triiodothyronine (T3), and Calcitonin. Thyroid hormone |

|Thyroid |affects body growth, metabolic rates, and the development of bones and skeletal muscle. |

| |The adrenal glands are on top of each kidney. Each gland has a cortex (outer region) and a medulla (inner region). |

|Adrenal Glands |The cortex secretes glucocorticoids such as cortisol, mineralocorticoids, and small amounts of androgens and |

| |estrogens. |

| |The ovary is the site of estrogen and progesterone synthesis. Estrogen is required to form the ovum (egg) during |

|Ovaries/ Testes |oogenesis and prepares the uterus for implanting a fertilized egg. The testes produce the hormone testosterone. |

| |A target cell responds to a hormone because it bears receptors for the hormone.In other words, a particular cell is |

|Target cell and receptors|a target cell for a hormone if it contains functional receptors for that hormone, and cells which do not have such a|

| |receptor cannot be influenced directly by that hormone. |

Nervous System

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[pic]

Nervous System

Function :

Interactions with 2 other systems:

Major parts/organs:

| |The smallest worker in the nervous system is the neuron. For each of the chain of impulses there is one preganglionic |

|Neurons |neuron, or one before the cell body or ganglion, that is like a central controlling body for numerous neurons going out|

| |peripherally. |

| |The cell body has several highly branched, thick extensions that appear like cables and are called dendrites. The |

|Dendrites |exception is a sensory neuron that has a single, long dendrite instead of many dendrites. Motor neurons have multiple |

| |thick dendrites. The dendrite's function is to carry a nerve impulse into the cell body. |

| |An axon is a long, thin process that carries impulses away from the cell body to another neuron or tissue. There is |

|Axons |usually only one axon per neuron. |

|Response to a stimulus|The functions of nerve tissue are to receive stimuli, transmit stimuli to nervous centers, and to initiate response. |

|Central Nervous System|The Central nervous system is made up of the brain and spinal cord. |

|Peripheral Nervous |The Peripheral nervous system is made up of the Somatic and the Autonomic nervous systems. The somatic nervous system |

|System |consists of peripheral nerve fibers that pick up sensory information or sensations from the peripheral or distant |

| |organs (those away from the brain like limbs) and carry them to the central nervous system. The autonomic nervous |

| |system controls the nerves of the inner organs of the body on which humans have no conscious control. |

Respiratory System

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Respiratory System

Function :

Interactions with 2 other systems:

Major parts/organs:

| |The nose consists of two nasal cavity separated by a cartilaginous nasal septum which is covered with a mucus membrane |

|Nasal cavity |(Nasal Septum). Air enters through the nostrils, which are openings lined by an thin skin with coarse hairs and |

| |sebaceous glands. |

|Trachea/ |The trachea (TRAY-kee-uh} is sometimes called the windpipe. The trachea filters the air we breathe and branches into |

|epiglottis |the bronchi. |

|Bronchus |The trachea divides into a right and left main bronchus. |

| |As the airway passages make their way out to the lung tissue, the passages become smaller and are referred to as |

|Bronchiole |bronchioles. |

| |The main organ of the respiratory system is lungs. Lungs are the site in body where oxygen is taken into and carbon |

|Lungs |dioxide is expelled out. The red blood cells present in the blood picks up the oxygen in the lungs and carry and |

| |distribute the oxygen to all body cells that need it. The red blood cells donate the oxygen to the cells and picks up |

| |the carbon dioxide produced by the cells. |

| |The alveoli are the final branchings of the respiratory tree and act as the primary gas exchange units of the lung. The|

|Alveoli |gas-blood barrier between the alveolar space and the pulmonary capillaries is extremely thin, allowing for rapid gas |

| |exchange. To reach the blood, oxygen must diffuse through the alveolar epithelium, a thin interstitial space, and the |

| |capillary endothelium; CO2 follows the reverse course to reach the alveoli. |

| |Breathing starts with a dome-shaped muscle at the bottom of the lungs called the diaphragm (DY-uh-fram). When you |

|Diaphragm |breathe in, the diaphragm contracts. When it contracts it flattens out and pulls downward. This movement enlarges the |

| |space that the lungs are in. This larger space pulls air into the lungs. When you breathe out, the diaphragm expands |

| |reducing the amount of space for the lungs and forcing air out. The diaphragm is the main muscle used in breathing. |

Circulatory System

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Circulatory System

Function :

Interactions with 2 other systems:

Major parts/organs:

| |The Heart is an amazing organ. The heart beats about 3 BILLION times during an average lifetime. It is a muscle about |

|Heart |the size of your fist. The heart is located in the center of your chest slightly to the left. It's job is to pump your |

| |blood and keep the blood moving throughout your body. |

| |Arteries are blood vessels that carry oxygen rich blood AWAY from the heart. |

|Arteries | |

|Veins | Veins carry blood back toward your heart. |

| |Capillaries are tiny blood vessels as thin or thinner than the hairs on your head. Capillaries connect arteries to |

|Capillaries |veins. Food substances (nutrients), oxygen and wastes pass in and out of your blood through the capillary walls. |

| | |

|Blood | Red Blood Cells are responsible for carrying oxygen and carbon dioxide. Red Blood Cells pick up oxygen in the lungs |

|-RBCs |and transport it to all the body cells. After delivering the oxygen to the cells it gathers up the carbon dioxide(a |

| |waste gas produced as our cells are working) and transports carbon dioxide back to the lungs where it is removed from |

| |the body when we exhale(breath out). There are about 5,000,000 Red Blood Cells in ONE drop of blood. |

| | |

| | |

| | |

| | |

|-WBCs | |

| | |

| | |

| | |

| | |

| | |

|-plasma | |

| | |

| | |

|-platelets | |

| | White Blood Cells help the body fight off germs. White Blood Cells attack and destroy germs when they enter the |

| |body. When you have an infection your body will produce more White Blood Cells to help fight an infection. Sometimes |

| |our White Blood Cells need a little help and the Doctor will prescribe an antibiotic to help our White Blood Cells |

| |fight a large scale infection. |

| |Plasma is the liquid part of the blood. Approximately half of your blood is made of plasma. The plasma carries the |

| |blood cells and other components throughout the body. Plasma is made in the liver. |

| |Platelets are blood cells that help stop bleeding. When we cut ourselves we have broken a blood vessel and the blood |

| |leaks out. In order to plug up the holes where the blood is leaking from the platelets start to stick to the opening of|

| |the damaged blood vessels. |

| |Humans have two-circuit circulatory systems: one circuit is for pulmonary circulation (circulation to the lungs; pulmo |

|Path of blood through |= lungs), and the other circuit is for systemic circulation (the rest of the body). As each atrium and ventricle |

|the body |contract, blood is pumped into certain major blood vessels, and from there, continues through the circulatory system. |

Urinary System

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Urinary

Function :

Interactions with 2 other systems::

Major parts/organs:

| |The primary function of the kidneys is the removal of metabolic wastes formed within the cells of the body. We know |

| |metabolism occurs within every cell of our body, and nitrogenous wastes, such as urea, uric acid, and ammonia, are |

|Kidneys |generated as a result of this process. These toxic compounds are dissolved in the bloodstream, and are filtered out by |

| |the kidneys. |

| | |

| |The ureters are narrow tubes that arise from the kidneys and descend to the urinary bladder. Each ureter is attached to|

|Ureter |the renal pelvis of the respective kidney. The function of the ureters is to transport urine from the renal pelvis of |

| |the kidneys to the urinary bladder. |

|Urinary bladder |The urinary bladder is a triangular, hollow organ that is located in the lower abdominal region. The function of the |

| |urinary bladder is to store urine until it is expelled from the body. |

| |The urethra is the tube through which urine is expelled from the body. |

|Urethra |It is 8 inches long in males and 2 inches long in females. |

| |Adults pass about a quart and a half of urine each day, depending on the fluids and foods consumed. The volume of urine|

| |formed at night is about half that formed in the daytime. Normal urine is sterile. It contains fluids, salts and waste |

|Urine |products, but it is free of bacteria, viruses and fungi. The tissues of the bladder are isolated from urine and toxic |

| |substances by a coating that discourages bacteria from attaching and growing on the bladder wall. |

Immune/Lymphatic System

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[pic]

Immune/Lymphatic System

Function :

Interactions with 2 other systems:

Major parts/organs:

| |Innate, or nonspecific, immunity is the defense system with which you were born. It protects you against all |

|Innate immunity |antigens. Innate immunity involves barriers that keep harmful materials from entering your body. These barriers |

| |form the first line of defense in the immune response. |

| |These are examples of innate immunities: skin, secretions, inflammation, and white blood cells. |

|Acquired immunity |Acquired immunity is immunity that develops with exposure to various antigens. Your immune system builds a defense |

| |that is specific to that antigen. |

|Antibody immunity |The immune system includes certain types of white blood cells. It also includes chemicals and proteins in the |

|-antigens |blood, such as antibodies, complement proteins, and interferon. Some of these directly attack foreign substances in|

|-antibodies |the body, and others work together to help the immune system cells. Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell. |

|-T cells and B cells |There are B and T type lymphocytes. B cells produce antibodies. Antibodies attach to a specific antigen and make it|

| |easier for the immune cells to destroy the antigen. T cells attack antigens directly and help control the immune |

| |response. They also release chemicals, known as cytokines, which control the entire immune response. |

| |Passive immunity is due to antibodies that are produced in a body other than your own. Infants have passive |

|Passive immunity |immunity because they are born with antibodies that are transferred through the placenta from their mother. These |

| |antibodies disappear between 6 and 12 months of age. Passive immunization may also be due to injection of |

| |antiserum, which contains antibodies that are formed by another person or animal. It provides immediate protection |

| |against an antigen, but does not provide long-lasting protection. Immune serum globulin (given for hepatitis |

| |exposure) and tetanus antitoxin are examples of passive immunization. |

| |Active immunity is any immunity that the body creates for itself in response to the presence of specific harmful |

|Active immunity |substances, which usually are bacteria or viruses. This can take a number of different forms. In some instances, |

| |this is a natural process, but it can also be artificially triggered. |

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The largest organ system of our body and consists of skin, hair, nails, oil and sweat glands as well as nerves. All these organs collectively play a variety of roles in maintaining the normal body functions. It covers and provides protection from damage.

One of the first defense mechanisms Your nervous system depends on for the immune system neurons embedded in your skin to sense the outside world.

Protection and support are the two big reasons that organisms have skeletal systems. Your Skeletal system is all of the bones in the body and the tissues such as tendons, ligaments and cartilage that connect them. Your teeth are also considered part of your skeletal system but they are not counted as bones. Your teeth are made of enamel and dentin. Enamel is the strongest substance in your body.

skeleton works very closely with the The calcified bones of your skeleton

muscular system to help you move also work with the circulatory system.

Marrow inside of your bones helps

produce the cells inside of your blood.

The muscular system is responsible for the movement of the human body. Attached to the bones of the skeletal system are about 700 named muscles that make up roughly half of a person’s body weight.

The neurons of the nervous system are You have smooth muscles that line

system and lymph system. your digestive system and help move

food through your intestines. Smooth

muscle also surrounds your circulatory

connected to most of the cells in your

muscular system.

Muscle fiber is the term used to collectively describe the many long, multi-nucelated muscle cells, or myofibers, that make up skeletal muscle.

Your digestive and excretory systems work with the nervous system in both conscious and unconscious ways. While digestion goes on without your thoughts, eating, peeing, and pooping are under your control.

The endocrine system is one of the body’s main systems for communicating, controlling and coordinating the body’s work. responses to surroundings, stress and injuryThe endocrine system accomplishes these tasks via a network of glands and organs that produce, store, and secrete certain types of hormones.

It works with the nervous system, reproductive system, kidneys, gut, liver, pancreas and fat to help maintain and control the following: body energy levels, reproduction, growth and development, internal balance of body systems, called homeostasis.

The nervous system is a complex network of nerves and cells that carry messages to and from the brain and spinal cord to various parts of the body. The nervous system includes both the Central nervous system and Peripheral nervous system.

There is obvious interaction between your muscles and your nervous system. That interaction helps you move around and interact with your environment. There are many hidden interactions going on within your body. Your endocrine system works closely with your brain and central nervous system to control the creation of specific hormones and enzymes. Your digestive and excretory systems work with the nervous system in both conscious and unconscious ways. While digestion goes on without your thoughts, eating, peeing, and pooping are under your control.

Your respiratory system is all about exchanging gases with the environment.

You have two lungs and the exchange of gases between the circulatory and respiratory systems happens in the lungs. your respiratory system also interacts with your digestive system. Your mouth and pharynx are both used to swallow and to breathe. There is a branching point where you will find the epiglottis that directs food to your stomach and air to your lungs. Your respiratory system even connects with the nervous system in your nose where you smell.

The circulatory system carries chemicals to all points in your body. The fluids also carry waste products and dissolved gases for your cells.

When you breathe, the circulatory system carries oxygen to your cells and carries dissolved carbon dioxide back to the lungs, therefore working with the respiratory system. The circulatory system and its fluids are super important to your digestive system that has absorbed nutrients from your food. Hormones created by your endocrine system are sent through the body by the circulatory system.

The urinary system, also known as the excretory system, is concerned with the removal of water-soluble waste products from the body in the form of urine. The various components or organs of the urinary system are associated with the production, storage, and then expulsion of urine from the body. At the same time, the system also takes part in several vital functions of the body.

Read more at Buzzle:

It has an interdependent relationship with the endocrine system, the circulatory system, the musculoskeletal system and the nervous system. The adrenal glands, also a part of the endocrine system, secrete a chemical substance that allows the kidneys to effectively regulate fluids in the body. This process is directly related to blood pressure and the circulatory system. The urinary system is also closely related to the circulatory system by virtue of the processes of cleansing the blood of waste, removing excess fluids and generally keeping other fluids in balance.

Read more: What Systems Does the Urinary System Work With? |

The lymph system is designed for transportation in a way similar to the circulatory system, however it acts like the clean-up crew for your body. The intercellular fluid slowly begins to accumulate and must be returned to the cells and the blood stream. The lymph system gathers those fluids and returns them to your blood.

Collection of fluids begins at the capillaries of the circulatory system and then the fluid directed through a series of vessels that become the thoracic duct. That duct is connected to the largest vein in your body, the superior vena cava, and returns the fluid to your heart and circulatory system. The digestive system is critical to proper immune function. The GALT, including the tonsils and appendix, are locations where the body deciphers which foreign substances are food and which are pathogens, helping to create normal immune function.

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