CHAPTER 1: OVERVIEW OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT



CHAPTER 1: OVERVIEW OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT

Rape crisis centers maintain a philosophy emphasizing the need to remain victim-centered. A victim-centered approach restores control to the victim, assists her in exploring options and supports her choices. To be victim-centered, you must understand what the trauma means to the individual and focus on her experiences and needs at that time.

Our work with children should also be victim-centered. You must understand not only what the trauma means to the child by focusing on their individual experiences and needs, but you must understand them in a developmental context. Part of being victim-centered with children and adolescents involves understanding that children present different issues based on their developmental level. Whether you are presenting a prevention program to first graders, providing counseling for a 10-year-old victim of sexual abuse or fielding a hotline call from an adolescent, understanding the basics of child development is critical.

In this section, we will provide an overview of the cognitive, social and sexual development of children. While developmental theories abound, most share the common themes of sequential stages and an understanding that the child’s unique environment and experiences influence their development. For example, Jean Piaget believed children move through four distinct stages of cognitive development with each new stage being absolutely dependent on completing the previous stage. In addition, he recognized that differences in social experiences could enhance or impede the development of cognitive structures. Eric Erickson also believed that each stage of development has unique tasks to be mastered. However, he postulated if tasks are not completed successfully, remnants of the earlier task will follow the child to the next stage. His theory thoroughly incorporates the importance of personal experience into the learning process.

While most child development theories have evolved over time allowing for the addition of new information, many still do not specifically address the development of children’s sexuality. In your work at the center, understanding the development of the whole child is imperative. Therefore, this section will also provide an overview of the sexual development of children from infancy through adolescence.

Developmental Theorists

Several prominent theories of child development are utilized today. However, the two we will examine here provide a basic overview of both the cognitive and social/emotional development of children. The two theorists highlighted here are Jean Piaget and Erik Erickson. While Piaget’s work became very diverse over time, he is most well-known for his work on cognitive development or understanding how children learn to think. Piaget broke the cognitive development of children down into four distinct stages, with each stage necessarily depending on the successful completion of the previous stage. Although his work has been challenged over the years, Piaget’s work has remained a hallmark in understanding how children learn.

Erik Erickson was a psychiatrist who developed a theory examining the social and emotional development of human beings from infancy through adulthood. The eight stages he outlined provide a framework for understanding the impact of socialization on learning. In each stage, Erickson focuses on a task to be completed. Satisfactory learning and resolution of each phase is necessary for the successful completion of any subsequent stage. If stages are not completed successfully, remnants of that stage stay with the child until a resolution can be achieved.

A chart outlining both Piaget’s theory of cognitive development and Erickson’s theory of social/emotional development follows on the next page.

Theories of Child Development

|Age (years) |Eric Erickson |Jean Piaget |

|0-2 |Trust vs. Mistrust-The child, well- |Sensorimotor-The child’s cognitive system is |

| |handled, nurtured, and loved, develops |limited to motor reflexes at birth but builds |

| |trust and security and a basic optimism. Unsuccessful |on these reflexes to develop more |

| |completion of this stage results in an insecure and |sophisticated procedures. Children learn to |

| |mistrustful child. |generalize their activities to a wider range |

| | |of activities. |

|2-4 |Autonomy vs. Shame-This stage generally includes self-will,|Pre-operational-Children acquire |

| |tantrums, stubbornness and negativity. Successful |representational skills in the areas of mental|

| |completion of this stage finds confident, proud children |imagery and especially language. They are |

| |who are generally self-assured and independent rather than |very self-oriented and remain egocentric. |

| |ashamed. |That is, they can only use their new skills to|

| | |see the world from their perspective. |

|4-6 |Initiative vs. Guilt-The child successfully completing this| |

| |stage learns to broaden her skills, using imagination and |(Piaget’s Pre-operational stage continues |

| |fantasy; cooperate with others; and to lead as well as |until the approximate age of 6 years.) |

| |follow. If unsuccessful in this stage and immobilized by | |

| |guilt, she is fearful, hangs on the fringes of groups, | |

| |continues to depend on adults and is restricted in the | |

| |development of play skills and in imagination. | |

|6-12 |Industry vs. Inferiority-Formal life skills are learned: |Concrete Operational-In this stage, children |

| |relating with peers according to rules; moving from free |learn to see things from another’s point of |

| |play to play with structure and rules (teamwork); |view and take into account more than one |

| |gaining academic skills. The need for self-discipline |perspective simultaneously. They can |

| |steadily increases within this stage. Those successful in |understand concrete problems but are still |

| |earlier stages are trusting, autonomous, and industrious. |unable to solve abstract problems as they do |

| |The mistrusting child will doubt the future, and the shame |not consider all of the logically possible |

| |and guilt-filled child will experience defeat and |outcomes. |

| |inferiority. | |

|13-Young adult |Identity vs. Identity Diffusion-The child learns to answer |Formal Operations- Children who attain this|

| |satisfactorily and happily the question of “Who am I?”. But |stage are capable of thinking logically and|

| |even the adolescent who attains this stage successfully |abstractly. They can reason theoretically.|

| |experiences some role identity diffusion – possibly |Piaget considered this the final stage of |

| |experimenting with minor delinquency, flashes of rebellion |development. He noted that although |

| |and self-doubts. |adolescents would have to revise their |

| | |knowledge base throughout the rest of their|

| | |lives, their way of thinking was as |

| | |powerful as it would get. |

The insights offered by both Piaget and Erickson are very useful in practical terms. Understanding the cognitive level of children allows us to gear our expectations more appropriately and often even explains otherwise confusing behaviors. Likewise, being aware of a child’s social/emotional development can shed light on how they relate to others and understand themselves. Although every individual is unique in both make-up and experience, an 8-year-old and a 14-year-old will have a different understanding of the same concept. Our recognition of that difference greatly influences how we interact with children. We would use terms and examples that are more concrete with the younger child, keeping in mind their limited abilities to take in various perspectives and assess them logically. At the same time, the way the 14-year-old relates to the authority figure trying to explain the concept (as opposed to the 8-year-old) will influence their understanding and opinion of the concept. Although the adolescent would have more ability to logically approach complex problems and consider the consequences, they may question the source as well as the information being provided and determine the information is not useful to them. These are important points to keep in mind as we strive to utilize the information from these theories.

The Sexual Development of Children

The development of one’s sexuality is a process that occurs over a lifetime. Although the notion of children being sexual is uncomfortable for many adults, sexual development and sexual play are natural and healthy processes in children. For infants and toddlers, this process generally involves body sensations, cuddling and touch, and playing with toys. Very young infants touch and rub their own genitals. Boys experience erections. By school age, children are interested in body parts and their functions and the differences in genders. Some sexual play may begin at this age, and the concepts of love and affection begin to develop. Pre-adolescent children begin to focus more on social relationships and expectations and begin to experience more distinct sexual feelings. By the onset of puberty, biology dictates some of the process with the maturation of body parts and sexual organs. In adolescence, social expectations begin to play a bigger role in connecting romance, intimacy and sex and, in general, a more intense focus on sexual matters prevails.

The influence of environment cannot be overlooked when discussing the development of sexuality. An individual’s unique experiences greatly impact their perception of themselves as sexual beings. The chart on Page 1-8 outlines the usual and expected sexual development in children. While reviewing it, keep in mind the developmental stages outlined by both Erickson and Piaget to gain a greater understanding of a child’s cognitive approach to learning, as well as their social and emotional development, in regards to their growing sexuality.

By combining the theories of Piaget and Erickson with what we know about child sexual development, we can begin to see a more integrated view of child development.

Usual and Expected Sexual Development in Children[pic]

Pre-school age (0-5): Curiosity and exploration are hallmarks of cognitive development in this stage. Piaget outlines an egocentric child who begins learning through physical reflex and then through physical exploration of their immediate surroundings. This is consistent with the sexual development chart, which indicates masturbation begins with spontaneous touching of genitals and that children are often curious about the private parts of others. Pre-school children often learn through play that mimics experiences they have had. Again by playing “doctor” and “family,” children begin to explore the social and physical relationships of those around them.

Interestingly, a look at Erickson’s hallmarks reveals the tasks of trust, autonomy and initiative. Erickson felt if children were not successful in these stages of development, they would have issues with trust, shame and guilt. Often, the normal, healthy process of exploring one’s sexuality in the pre-school years is met with responses aimed at instilling guilt and fostering feelings of shame about their own bodies.

Latency age (5-pre-adolescence): Here, Piaget observes children becoming less egocentric and more interested in others. Children are now more able to see things from another person’s point of view. Erickson notes children’s play becomes more structured at this time often involving rules and playing with others. It makes sense, then, that children at this age are more inclined to extend their exploration outward and engage others in games of touching and/or looking.

Adolescence: In this final stage of true child development, Piaget found children capable of more abstract thought and complex problem-solving. Rather than maintaining a strict adherence to rules, adolescents tend to think through situations by exploring different options and at times even considering consequences. Erickson finds adolescents struggling for an identity and notes they may try different roles on for size before determining which fits best. This is consistent in terms of sexual development. Adolescents are more experimental with others at this stage and are willing to push boundaries to determine their comfort with different sexual activities. The influence of peers cannot be overlooked as adolescents attempt to identify who they are.

Chapter 1: Overview of Child Development

Chapter Questions

Instructions: Write a brief answer to each question and be prepared to discuss your responses with the training facilitator.

1. Explain the concept and importance of being victim-centered with children and adolescents. Give examples of being victim-centered when working with children.

2. What is important to know about the developmental stage of a 10-year-old that might help in understanding the impact of sexual assault on a child this age?

3. Considering all the aspects of development discussed in this section, write a brief description of how a 14-year-old girl might present if disclosing abuse after a presentation at her school.

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