Do we have an obligation to obey the law? - Stewart Morris

[Pages:10]STEW ART M ORRI S CHRI ST'S COLLEGE

PAPER 5 ? H I STORY AN D PH I LOSOPH Y OF POLI TI CAL TH OUGH T ESSAY 4

Do we ha ve a n oblig a tion to obe y the la w?

If we sta rt fro m the p re mise tha t whe n c o nsid e ring whe the r o r no t to o b e y the la w, we c o nd uc t a ra tio na l a sse ssme nt o f the a d va nta g e s a nd d isa d va nta g e s o f d o ing so , we mig ht inc lud e in the a d va nta g e s so me se nse o f 'o b lig a tio n' to o b e y, instille d in us d uring the p ro c e ss o f so c ia lisa tio n. As will b e a rg ue d , this se nse o f o b lig a tio n is a fa lse o ne , a nd no o ve r-a rc hing a nd c o nc re te o b lig a tio n to o b e y the la w und e rlie s it.

It is wo rth sta ting to b e g in with wha t is me a nt b y 'ha ving a n o b lig a tio n' to o b e y the la w, a s the te rm c a n le a d to so me c o nfusio n. We sho uld no te the d iffe re nc e b e twe e n 'b e ing o b lig e d ' to d o so me thing a nd 'ha ving a n o b lig a tio n' to d o it - the two a re se p a ra te c o nc e p ts. In a fa mo us e xa mp le ta ke n fro m Ha rt, if a g unma n o rd e rs a c le rk to ha nd o ve r his mo ne y (with a c re d ib le thre a t tha t he will sho o t the c le rk fo r fa ilure to c o mp ly) the n the c le rk, if he o b e ye d , 'wa s o b lig e d ' to ha nd o ve r the mo ne y. Ho we ve r, it wo uld b e a misinte rp re ta tio n o f the situa tio n to sug g e st tha t the c le rk 'ha d a n o b lig a tio n' o r 'ha d a d uty' to o b e y. If this situa tio n is writ la rg e in so c ie ty, the g unma n c a n b e se e n a s the so ve re ig n ha b itua lly o b e ye d a nd the o rd e rs a re g e ne ra l, p re sc rib ing c o urse s o f c o nd uc t ra the r tha n sing le a c tio ns. Ho we ve r, the d istinc tio n re ma ins. 'Be ing o b lig e d ' is a sta te me nt a b o ut the b e lie fs a nd mo tive s with whic h a n a c tio n is d o ne - in this c a se the b e lie f tha t se rio us ha rm wo uld o c c ur to the c le rk if he fa ile d to c o mp ly. O f c o urse , the c le rk wo uld no t ha ve 'b e e n o b lig e d ' if the g unma n ha d thre a te ne d me re ly to p inc h him, a s the c o st o f no n-c o mp lia nc e wo uld b e trivia l. No r wo uld the c le rk ha ve 'b e e n o b lig e d ' if he ha d g o o d re a so n no t to b e lie ve the g unma n wo uld c a rry o ut his thre a t. 'Ha ving a n o b lig a tio n', o n the o the r ha nd , is a ma tte r o f le g a l fa c t: fo r e xa mp le , it c o uld b e sta te d tha t o ne 'ha s a n o b lig a tio n' to te ll the truth in c o urt. Whe the r o r no t this is the e ve r in fa c t the c a se , the te rm is d e fine d b y this typ e o f situa tio n.

'Ha ving a n o b lig a tio n' c o uld b e se e n a s a mo ra l, ra the r tha n le g a l, p rinc ip le - it c a n b e e ithe r o ne b ut no t the o the r, o r it c a n b e b o th. It d o e s no t just re fe r to a n o rd e r b a c ke d b y a thre a t - it c o uld , fo r e xa mp le , inc lud e c a se s whe re o ne is fo rc e d to c o nfo rm to a g e ne ra l mo ra lity. An o ve r-rid ing c o nc e p t o f 'justic e ' unite s la w a nd mo ra ls: we c a n ta lk o f 'the justic e o f the La w' a nd 'the justic e o r injustic e o f the la ws' a t the sa me time . In so me c la sse s o f la w the a na lo g y o f o rd e rs b a c ke d b y thre a ts fa ils, sinc e the y p e rfo rm a d iffe re nt so c ia l func tio n (fo r e xa mp le , ma rria g e a nd c o ntra c t la w). Suc h la ws d o no t imp o se d utie s o r o b lig a tio ns, b ut c o nfe r up o n

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STEW ART M ORRI S CHRI ST'S COLLEGE

PAPER 5 ? H I STORY AN D PH I LOSOPH Y OF POLI TI CAL TH OUGH T ESSAY 4

ind ivid ua ls the le g a l p o we r to c re a te struc ture s o f rig hts a nd d utie s within the c o e rc ive fra me wo rk o f the la w.

The re is a no the r inte rp re ta tio n o f 'ha ving a n o b lig a tio n', whic h Ha rt d e sc rib e s a s the 'p re d ic tive inte rp re ta tio n'. This d e fine s it in te rms o f the c ha nc e o r like liho o d tha t the p e rso n ha ving the o b lig a tio n will suffe r a p unishme nt o r 'e vil' a t the ha nd s o f o the rs in the e ve nt o f d iso b e d ie nc e . This sta te s o b lig a tio ns no t in p syc ho lo g ic a l b ut in e mp iric a l te rms. Ha rt d ismisse s this vie w a s wro ng . De via tio n fro m the rule s is no t me re ly a p re d ic tio n tha t ho stile re a c tio ns will fo llo w, b ut a re a lso a re a so n o r justific a tio n fo r suc h re a c tio ns. If 'ha ving a n o b lig a tio n' is d e fine d b y the like liho o d o f the p e rp e tra to r suffe ring in the e ve nt o f d iso b e d ie nc e , this sug g e sts tha t if the re wa s no c ha nc e o f him b e ing c a ug ht (fo r e xa mp le , if he ha d suc c e ssfully b rib e d the p o lic e ) the n he wo uld no lo ng e r ha ve a n o b lig a tio n. It is the re fo re c ruc ia l to se e tha t the sta te me nt o f ha ving a n o b lig a tio n a nd the p re d ic tio n o f suffe ring ma y d ive rg e . Ano the r d e finitio n o f o b lig a tio n is c le a rly re q uire d . O b lig a tio n imp lie s the e xiste nc e o f a rule , ra the r tha n a o ne -o ff o rd e r. It e xists whe re the g e ne ra l d e ma nd fo r c o nfo rmity is insiste nt a nd the so c ia l p re ssure b ro ug ht to b e a r o n d e via nts (o r tho se who thre a te n to d e via te ) is g re a t. Ac c o rd ing to Ha rt, o b lig a tio n ha s thre e c o mmo n c ha ra c te ristic s: firstly, the insiste nc e o n the imp o rta nc e o r se rio usne ss o f so c ia l p re ssure b e hind the rule s; se c o nd ly, the rule s a re se e n a s ne c e ssa ry fo r the ma inte na nc e o f so c ia l life o r so me hig hly-p rize d fe a ture o f it; third ly, re c o g nitio n o f a sa c rific e o r re nunc ia tio n o n the p a rt o f the p e rso n with the o b lig a tio n. Ho we ve r, this d o e s no t ne c e ssa rily me a n tha t the re is a ny fe e ling o f p re ssure o r c o mp ulsio n o n the p a rt o f the p e rso n so o b lig a te d .

O b lig a tio ns c a n a lso b e se e n fro m inte rna l a nd e xte rna l p o ints o f vie w. The o b se rve r ma y, witho ut himse lf a c c e p ting the rule s, a sse rt tha t a p a rtic ula r g ro up a c c e p ts the rule s. Fo r e xa mp le , a re d lig ht is no t just a sig n tha t p e o p le will p ro b a b ly sto p d riving (the e xte rna l p o int o f vie w) b ut a lso a sig na l to the d rive r to sto p (the inte rna l p o int o f vie w). Ha rt's ma in c ritic ism o f p re d ic tive the o ry is tha t it d e fine s the inte rna l a sp e c t o f o b lig a tio n o ut o f e xiste nc e .

De finitio ns a sid e , this le a ve s us with the q ue stio n o f whe the r o r no t we d o , a fte r a ll, ha ve a n o b lig a tio n to o b e y the la w. Wa lze r sa ys tha t the re is no 'c o nve ntio na l wisd o m' o n the sub je c t. His a rg ume nt sta rts ho we ve r fro m the c o nve ntio na l wisd o m (o nc e re vo lutio na ry d o c trine ) tha t the g o ve rnme nt d e rive s its p o we r fro m the

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STEW ART M ORRI S CHRI ST'S COLLEGE

PAPER 5 ? H I STORY AN D PH I LOSOPH Y OF POLI TI CAL TH OUGH T ESSAY 4

c o nse nt o f the g o ve rne d in a fo rm o f so c ia l c o ntra c t: "I ha ve c o mmitte d myse lf (i.e . c o nse nte d ): the re fo re I a m c o mmitte d (i.e . o b lig a te d )." A c o ntra c t is sig nifie d b y so me a c tio n (wo rd o r d e e d ) o f o ur o wn. Ta c it c o nse nt c a n b e inte rp re te d in d iffe re nt wa ys: the b e st inte rp re ta tio n se e ms to b e tha t a sile nt ma n is ta ke n to c o nse nt if the ma n himse lf is ma d e a wa re tha t this a ssump tio n is b e ing ma d e . The c o ntra c t is o f c o urse a n e xc ha ng e : o b lig a tio ns c a n b e c o mp a re d to d e b ts a s the y a re o the r p e o p le 's re so urc e s a nd no t o urs, while c o nse nts a re c o nve ya nc e s o f o ur o wn a uto no my to o the rs.

In Lo c ke 's lib e ra l the o ry, a ny o p p re sse d c itize n ha s the rig ht to d iso b e y. In re a lity, c ivil d iso b e d ie nc e is c a rrie d o ut o nly b y tho se who a re a p a rt o f a g ro up , whe n c itize ns fe e l a n o b lig a tio n to diso b e y. The re a so ning is a s fo llo ws: "La w X is inc o nsiste nt with o ur (no t my) mo ra l c o nvic tio ns, the re fo re I o ug ht to d iso b e y". Wo lff e xp re sse s this in ve ry c ynic a l te rms:

"To b e true to o ne 's p rinc ip le s is e ithe r a me ta p ho r o r e lse a n e llip tic a l wa y o f d e sc rib ing lo ya lty to o the r me n who sha re tho se p rinc ip le s a nd a re re lying o n yo u to o b se rve the m".

This is o f c o urse e xa g g e ra te d , b ut c o mmitme nts to 'p rinc ip le s' a re a lso usua lly c o mmitme nts to a g ro up . 'Se lling o ut', tha t is g iving up a n he re tic a l p o int o f vie w in fa vo ur o f the o rtho d o xy, is se e n b y the he re tic a l g ro up no t just a s a b e tra ya l o f p rinc ip le s, b ut a b e tra ya l o f the m a s a g ro up .

So o b lig a tio n b e g ins with me mb e rship , whic h c a n, in its b ro a d e st se nse , b e g in with b irth into a so c ie ty. During o ne 's fo rma tive ye a rs, a se nse o f o b lig a tio n a rise s thro ug h the p ro c e ss o f so c ia lisa tio n. Ho we ve r, re a l o b lig a tio n c o me s with wilful me mb e rship . Eve n this, tho ug h, c a n b e d e fine d in d iffe re nt wa ys. Fro m a minima l, 'Me nshe vik' p o int o f vie w, wilful me mb e rship is simp ly c o ntinue d me mb e rship a fte r a c e rta in a g e . Fro m a ma xima l, 'Bo lshe vik' p o int o f vie w, wilful me mb e rship re q uire s a p ub lic p ro fe ssio n o f the fa ith a nd lo ng -te rm invo lve me nt in g ro up a c tivitie s. At the ma xima l e xtre me s, se c re t so c ie tie s will p ra c tic e ritua ls suc h a s te sts, initia tio ns a nd o a ths, to e nsure tha t me mb e rship is wilful a nd c o mmitme nt is hig h.

The sta te c a n b e vie we d a s a n 'id e a l o r p o te ntia l c o mmunity', o b lig a ting its me mb e rs to o p p o se tho se who a c t le g a lly b ut immo ra lly in its na me . The re fo re tho se who d iso b e y a c o lla b o ra tio nist g o ve rnme nt a fte r milita ry d e fe a t (o r a sa te llite g o ve rnme nt a fte r p e a c e ful c a p itula tio n) o fte n c la im tha t the ir sta te ha s b e e n b e tra ye d , a nd tha t

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STEW ART M ORRI S CHRI ST'S COLLEGE

PAPER 5 ? H I STORY AN D PH I LOSOPH Y OF POLI TI CAL TH OUGH T ESSAY 4

the y a re o b lig a te d b y a p re vio us me mb e rship a nd d rive n b y p a trio tism to re sist. Ho we ve r, the y c a nno t c la im tha t a ll o f the ir fe llo w c itize ns a re so o b lig a te d . If re sista nc e is suc c e ssful, while a c tive c o lla b o ra to rs c o uld p o ssib ly b e p unishe d , tho se who ha d simp ly re fuse d to jo in the fig ht c o uld no t b e , a s the y ha d ne ve r inc urre d a d uty to d o so . To insist tha t o b lig a tio ns c a n o nly c o me fro m wilful c o nd uc t is to re sta te the the o ry o f the so c ia l c o ntra c t - this a p p lie s we ll to sma ll g ro up s suc h a s se c re t so c ie tie s, b ut muc h le ss we ll to the sta te itse lf, to e sta b lishe d c hurc he s o r to so me va g ue c o nc e p t o f 'huma nity'. The ke y is this: g ro up s in whic h wilfulne ss is ma ximise d c a n rig htfully imp o se g re a te r o b lig a tio ns tha n tho se whe re me mb e rship is e ffe c tive ly inhe rite d , unle ss o f c o urse me mb e rship o f the la tte r g ro up is se c o nd e d b y vo lunta ry p a rtic ip a tio n in the a c tivitie s o f tha t g ro up . This is why, a c c o rd ing to Ro usse a u, sma ll so c ie tie s a re g e ne ra lly 'mo ra lly sup e rio r' to la rg e o ne s: the y c a n imp o se g re a te r o b lig a tio ns up o n the ir me mb e rs.

The 'o b lig a tio n to d iso b e y' a rise s whe n o b lig a tio ns inc urre d in so me sma ll g ro up c o me into c o nflic t with tho se inc urre d in a la rg e r, mo re inc lusive g ro up (g e ne ra lly the sta te ). Whe n the sma ll g ro up is a se c o nd a ry a sso c ia tio n (i.e . o ve rrule d b y the sta te ) it o ug ht to yie ld witho ut c o nflic t to the p rima ry a sso c ia tio n (the sta te , with its mo no p o ly o n the le g itima te use o f vio le nc e ). 'Se lling -o ut' is simp ly a ma tte r o f b e ha ving like a me mb e r o f a se c o nd a ry a sso c ia tio n. C o nflic t o c c urs whe n g ro up s a re fo rme d , a nd the ir c la ims a nno unc e d , whic h a re 'se c o nd a ry a sso c ia tio ns with c la ims to p rima c y'. Ho we ve r we ne e d to d ra w a n imp o rta nt d istinc tio n b e twe e n two typ e s o f a sso c ia tio n. The first typ e ha s a 'to ta l c la im to p rima c y' - whe ne ve r c o mma nd e d , its me mb e rs must c ha lle ng e the e sta b lishe d le g a l syste m, to o ve rthro w a nd re p la c e o ne g o ve rnme nt with a no the r, a nd to a tta c k the ve ry e xiste nc e o f the la rg e r so c ie ty the se g ro up s c a n b e d e sc rib e d a s re vo lutio na ry. The se c o nd typ e ha s o nly a 'p a rtia l c la im to p rima c y' - the la rg e r so c ie ty is a ske d to re c o g nise the ir p rima c y in so me p a rtic ula r sp he re a nd so limit its o wn p rima c y, a nd the me mb e rs a re re q uire d o nly to d iso b e y c e rta in la ws a t c e rta in time s. The se a re c le a rly no t re vo lutio na ry in the a b o ve se nse , b ut whe n the sta te a ssig ns la b e ls o f 're b e l' o r 'sub ve rsive ' to suc h typ e s, who re je c t suc h la b e ls, the y a re o fte n fo rc e d to tra nsfo rm the mse lve s into re vo lutio na rie s fo r the p urp o se s o f se lf-d e fe nc e . The sta te c a n live with suc h g ro up s ind e e d this is the histo ric a l b a sis o f lib e ra lism, whe re b y d iso b e d ie nc e o r he re sy is tra nsfo rme d into me re no nc o nfo rmity.

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STEW ART M ORRI S CHRI ST'S COLLEGE

PAPER 5 ? H I STORY AN D PH I LOSOPH Y OF POLI TI CAL TH OUGH T ESSAY 4

So wha t o f the c a se s whe re the p a rtia l c la im to p rima c y is no t re c o g nise d ? Ac c o rd ing to Lo c ke , o ne c a n b e a p a rt o f the wid e r so c ie ty o r o utsid e it. In the first c a te g o ry, o ne c a n b e a c itize n (with full re c o g nitio n o f the p rima c y o f the sta te , tho ug h c e rta in a re a s o f so c ia l life ma y b e ke p t b e yo nd the g o ve rnme nt's re a c h) o r a re b e l (who se e ks to re p la c e the g o ve rnme nt a nd its la ws). In the se c o nd c a te g o ry, o ne c a n b e a n e mig ra nt (who ha s le ft the so c ie ty in o rd e r to re no unc e o ne 's so c ia l o b lig a tio ns) o r a n a lie n (who c a nno t c o mmit e ntire ly to the ne w so c ie ty, b ut ha s c e rta in o b lig a tio ns in re wa rd fo r its p ro te c tio n). Me mb e rship o f a g ro up with p a rtia l c la ims to p rima c y fa lls into no ne o f the se c a te g o rie s ho we ve r; o ne is no t a c itize n (a s lo ya ltie s a re d ivid e d ) no r a re b e l (a s o ne se e ks no c ha ng e in g o ve rnme nt), no t a n e mig ra nt (a s o ne d o e s no t le a ve ) no r a n a lie n (a s o ne c a n d e ma nd the rig ht to re ma in in the sta te ). It is p o ssib le to ta lk o f so me kind o f 'inte rna l e mig ra tio n' a s Wa lze r d o e s, b ut this o d d a sso rtme nt o f trib e s, c la ns, se c ts, tra d e unio nists, p a c ifists a nd o the rs a re unite d b y o ne b e lie f - tha t the y ha ve no c la im to the mo ra l sup re ma c y o r p o litic a l so ve re ig nty o f the la rg e r so c ie ty. Fig g is c la ims tha t so ve re ig nty is just 'a ve ne ra b le sup e rstitio n' a nd tha t in re a lity 'it is a s a se rie s o f g ro up s tha t o ur so c ia l life p re se nts itse lf.' Ma yb e this is why suc h g ro up s ha ve no c la im to so ve re ig nty; a s sma lle r, 'mo ra lly sup e rio r' g ro up s the y re c o g nise the ne g a tive c o nse q ue nc e s o f 'd iluting ' the g ro up b y b e c o ming mo re inc lusive .

Wa lze r d e fine s o ur o b lig a tio n in te rms o f a p rima fa c ie o b lig a tio n to o b e y the sta te , a s it is the mo st inc lusive so c ie ty o f whic h we a re a p a rt. This is no t unre a so na b le , p ro vid e d o f c o urse tha t the sta te p ro vid e s e q ua lly to a ll its me mb e rs c e rta in e sse ntia l se rvic e s. But this p rima fa c ie o b lig a tio n simp ly me a ns tha t d iso b e d ie nc e must a lwa ys b e justifie d . Me n a lso ha ve a p rima fa c ie o b lig a tio n to ho no ur the ir e ng a g e me nts, to d e fe nd the g ro up s a nd up ho ld the id e a ls to whic h the y ha ve vo lunta rily c o mmitte d the mse lve s, e ve n a g a inst the sta te , so lo ng a s the ir d iso b e d ie nc e o f la ws d o e s no t thre a te n the ve ry e xiste nc e o f the la rg e r so c ie ty o r e nd a ng e r its c itize ns. In o the r wo rd s, so me time s it is o b e die nc e to the sta te , whe n o ne ha s o the r mo ra l c o mmitme nts, whic h must b e justifie d , no t d iso b e d ie nc e : e xp la na tio ns a re o we d to the b re thre n o r c o mra d e s who o ne ha s b e tra ye d . In re a lity, it is ra re ly the c a se tha t limite d c ivil d iso b e d ie nc e thre a te ns the ve ry e xiste nc e o f the sta te a nd o f se rvic e s suc h a s p ub lic he a lth a nd p e rso na l se c urity whic h the sma lle r g ro up c a nno t p ro vid e . The two fo rms o f c la ims to p rima c y (to ta l a nd p a rtia l) usua lly re ma in d istinc t. G ro up s who e xe rc ise c ivil d iso b e d ie nc e ma y c la im tha t the la w is o ve r-e xte nd e d , b ut the y d o no t wish to a b o lish la ws in o the r a re a s.

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